46th International Association for Time Use Research Conference

Understanding the Dynamics of Happiness Changes during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the US: A Time-Use Approach

Author: Hoxhaj Rezart

Contributing author(s): Hubert Jayet

This paper investigates the sources of changes in daily happiness during the COVID-19 pandemic in the US using time allocation to daily activities. It empirically examines three key mechanisms through which the pandemic may have affected the individual’s happiness; time allocation  to daily activities, the reduction of social interactions and shifts in perception about activities.  The analysis draws on data from the American Time-Use Survey (ATUS) Well-Being modules for the years 2012, 2013, and 2021. Results show that the pandemic decreased happiness by reducing time devoted to more enjoyable activities and interactions with non-household members. The paper also finds evidence that the decrease in happiness is attributable to more negative perception of activities during the pandemic. These mechanisms work differently across genders and days of the week. A nuanced understanding of how pandemics or similar shocks influence well-being helps shaping effective policies that promote socio-economic prosperity.

Understanding the Dynamics of Happiness Changes during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the US: A Time-Use Approach

Author: Hoxhaj Rezart

Contributing author(s): Hubert Jayet

This paper investigates the sources of changes in daily happiness during the COVID-19 pandemic in the US using time allocation to daily activities. It empirically examines three key mechanisms through which the pandemic may have affected the individual’s happiness; time allocation  to daily activities, the reduction of social interactions and shifts in perception about activities.  The analysis draws on data from the American Time-Use Survey (ATUS) Well-Being modules for the years 2012, 2013, and 2021. Results show that the pandemic decreased happiness by reducing time devoted to more enjoyable activities and interactions with non-household members. The paper also finds evidence that the decrease in happiness is attributable to more negative perception of activities during the pandemic. These mechanisms work differently across genders and days of the week. A nuanced understanding of how pandemics or similar shocks influence well-being helps shaping effective policies that promote socio-economic prosperity.

Understanding the Dynamics of Happiness Changes during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the US: A Time-Use Approach

Author: Hoxhaj Rezart

Contributing author(s): Hubert Jayet

This paper investigates the sources of changes in daily happiness during the COVID-19 pandemic in the US using time allocation to daily activities. It empirically examines three key mechanisms through which the pandemic may have affected the individual’s happiness; time allocation  to daily activities, the reduction of social interactions and shifts in perception about activities.  The analysis draws on data from the American Time-Use Survey (ATUS) Well-Being modules for the years 2012, 2013, and 2021. Results show that the pandemic decreased happiness by reducing time devoted to more enjoyable activities and interactions with non-household members. The paper also finds evidence that the decrease in happiness is attributable to more negative perception of activities during the pandemic. These mechanisms work differently across genders and days of the week. A nuanced understanding of how pandemics or similar shocks influence well-being helps shaping effective policies that promote socio-economic prosperity.

Sociodemographics of time allocation in Legal Amazon

Author: Wellington Denis Costa Pereira

The Brazilian population reached 203.1 million in 2022, an increase of 6.5% over the previous Population Census, carried out in 2010. It represents an increase of 12.3 million persons in the period. Legal Amazon corresponds to 58.93% of the Brazilian territory, in nine states and 772 municipalities. But the questions are: How about the 2022 census in Legal Amazon area? And how are the people in Legal Amazon are living?

Brazil is the world’s fifth largest country. It is estimated that some 28 million people live in the rural areas. An additional 22 million people live in isolated towns and villages. The Legal Amazon occupies 5,015,068.18 km² of land, or about 58.9% of the Brazilian territory.

Brazil was originally inhabited by hunter-gatherers and farmers. Portuguese explorers brought with them the Roman Catholic religion, and subsequently, many churches and chapels were built—some adorned with elaborate wood carvings covered with gold leaf. From the mid-16th to the mid-19th century, slave ships carried some four million Africans to Brazil to work in the fields. The African influence is also evident in Brazil’s music, dance, and food. Traditional feijoada, an adaptation of a Portuguese dish, is a stew made of a mixture of meats and black beans, served with rice and collard greens. In the 19th and 20th centuries, millions of emigrants from Europe (mainly Germany, Italy, Poland, and Spain), Japan, and other areas joined the population.

The Population Census is the biggest and most complete statistical operation in the country. The survey aims at knocking at every door of the 5570 Brazilian municipalities in order to produce a vivid portrait of our society. What have we learned about how the Legal Amazon People are living using the time daily? How is the  Socio-demographics of time allocation in Legal Amazon?

The Educational Stratification of Mothers’ Time-Use in Comparative Perspective

Author: Giacomo Vagni

Contributing author(s): Kelly Musick

Weak institutional support for families and children in the United States has been linked to higher levels of child poverty, lower maternal employment, and worse subjective well-being relative to other wealthy countries. This analysis uses a comparative approach to examine another potential outcome with implications for health and well-being: mothers’ time use. We posit that policy and normative support for parents shapes the day-to- day experiences of work, childcare, and leisure, particularly among mothers, in ways that differ by socioeconomic status. Using harmonized time diary studies from the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Sweden, we describe differences in mothers’ average time use and sequences of daily activities across education groups and countries, and we generate typologies of time use to summarize detailed sequences. Preliminary findings highlight salient within- and between-country differences in mothers’ time use. Our proposed next steps will flesh out and synthesize these patterns.

School Start Scrambles: Institutional Temporal Synchronies and Women's Labor Force Participation

Author: Boróka Bó

Contributing author(s): Boroka Bo (UC Dublin), Denys Dukhovnov (UC Berkeley), Kara Anderson (UC Berkeley)

This study shows that K-12 school start times along with contextual sociodemographic factors are significant predictors of women’s labor force participation. We use three 2019 nationally representative, public datasets: the American Community Survey, the National Historical Geographical Information System, and the Unlocking Time Survey. Analyses involve two stages. First, we present descriptive results and two-tailed differences-in-means tests. Ordinary least squares regressions evaluate significant relationships. We find that later school start times have important ramifications, extending beyond the mental and physical well-being of children. Women’s labor force participation is nearly 5 percentage points higher in areas where schools start at or after the recommended time of 8:30am. Contextual economic and demographic factors are impactful when it comes to the relationship between school start times and women’s labor force participation. Our work represents an important contribution to the ongoing school start time policy debate sweeping the United States.

Why Are We Awake? Algorithmic Serendipity and the Sociology of Sleeplessness

Author: Boróka Bó

What is the relationship between algorithmic serendipity, insomnia, and community engagement? Despite work noting that insomnia should be studied in the context of technological advances blurring distinctions between our public-private and individual-collective spheres, it is unclear how our current social experience of insomnia emerges and persists. Drawing on YouTube data, we present a comprehensive theory of sleeplessness in modernity, connecting algorithmic serendipity and the insomnia experience, disclosure practices, and community dynamics. We show that insomnia creates the conditions for two specific forms of algorithmic serendipity. Algorithmic serendipity then shapes how individuals struggling to sleep discover and create online co-sleeping communities. Surprisingly, the successful efforts to ameliorate the original factors underpinning insomnia perpetuate insomnia. Our findings suggest that researchers should consider the recursive nature of digital culture's impact on sleep to examine how group-based identities, behaviors, and discursive norms coalesce in the sociological paradox of our collective insomnia in the digital age. Research on algorithmic serendipity and the sociology of sleeplessness carries substantial health and social policy implications.

A Goldilocks Theory of Time Availability and the Pain of Losing Friends

Author: Boróka Bó

Contributing author(s): Boroka Bo (UC Dublin), Matumo Ramafikeng (U of Essex)

Research on how social network member loss influences the experience of physical pain largely focuses on psychological aspects. But social network member loss also comprises a temporal dimension, as individuals contend with reallocating time once-spent with friends. Current largely laboratory-based research approaches fail to address this on a population level. Data come from the Canadian Time for Health Survey (N=1,001). Analyses involve three stages. First, bivariate associations provide distributions of self-reported pain by SES and network member loss. Next, binary logistic regressions examine the relationship between network member loss and self-reported pain, accounting for time availability and relevant sociodemographic control variables. Finally, propensity score weighting explores whether otherwise identical individuals who only vary by whether they have lost a friend or not differ when it comes to self-reported pain. This research illustrates that: (i) network member loss is a significant predictor of persistent physical pain and results are consistent using propensity score weighting; (ii) respondent sociodemographic characteristics shape the experience of pain; (iii) both time excess and time poverty increase the expected risk of pain, suggesting the presence of Temporal Goldilocks Zones. Our research shows that physical pain is concurrently a sociotemporal phenomenon, transcending individual characteristics.   

How to mitigate current limitations in time-use studies? A call for the re-design of TUS to address inequalities in time use and time experience

Author: Lukas Heck

Time-use studies provide valuable insights into how people use their time and serve as an important tool to capture gendered inequalities regarding time allocation. For example, feminist scholars consider them as a measure of the civic and economic importance of unpaid domestic and care work. However, this is only one aspect of time-use studies. In time research, time is not an objective and universal concept but a socially constructed phenomenon that varies across different societies and historical periods. There has been a shift in Western societies: In pre-industrial times, people’s lives were defined by times based on the natural, repetitive rhythms of seasons and tasks to be performed. Then, with the availability of clock towers and watches, linear clock time regulated the new rhythms of industrial life to synchronize work and standardize the hours and pace of work. The capitalist workplace thus shaped the hegemony of the linear clock time regime where time is perceived as something that moves steadily in one direction and can be owned, measured, saved, spent, wasted, and ‘used’.

On the one hand, this paper examines theoretically the potentials and limitations of time-use studies from the perspective of feminist ecological economics and time research. In contrast to linear clock time, ecological and caring processes follow different time logics, characterized by ‘rhythmicity’. Focusing on the latter, caring is enmeshed in social relations. It involves messier, circular, interdependent processes, fluidity and diverse temporalities. Accordingly, many processes can be intertwined, or unexpected events often require the abandonment of the linear clock time regime. As a tool for visualizing unequal time allocation the challenge of measuring care responsibilities, such as mental load, remains.

On the other hand, following an empirical approach, this paper reflects on the limitations of time-use studies by asking how they can be mitigated by complementing them with qualitative methods. Using a variety of methods, both hetero and queer couples (n = 7 couples) are interviewed about their time use employing the tools of (1) time diaries, (2) couple interviews, and (3) the ‘household portrait’ mapping technique, which illustrates the division of household/care tasks and indicates responsibilities. The results open up new perspectives for time-use studies in terms of experience of time, conflicting time logics, and time justice. Given the forthcoming publications of time-use studies in Europe (round 3 of 'HETUS’ 2020), the results are also intended for statistical authorities involved in the design of such studies.

Differences in Time Use and Leisure Activities by Income Level: Findings from the 2021 Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities in Japan

Author: TAKAHIRO NAITO

Contributing author(s): OHKURA Kazuyoshi (Mr.), KANEKO Ruriko (Ms.)

The Statistics Bureau of Japan (SBJ) conducts the Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities every five years to obtain comprehensive data on the daily patterns of time allocation and leisure activities. Recently, we conducted the 10th survey in 2021 and released its results in 2022.

In this survey, about 91,000 households are selected and about 190,000 household members aged 10 and over report their activities for each 15 minute intervals during consecutive two days which are designated by SBJ, and respond to survey items such as “activity of caring”, “acceptance of child care services”, and “wish for work”.

There are two survey items on income related to the theme of this paper: one is “annual household income” (including not only income and earnings from work, but also benefits, dividends, and remittances), which has been surveyed as a household survey item since 1976, when the survey began. The other is “annual income /earnings of individuals from work,” an individual survey item added in 2011.

We provide tables of results on time use and leisure activities over the past year　(e.g. sports, hobbies/entertainment), by the income level of households and individuals, which enables analyses of the impact of income level on time use and leisure activities.

Although there have been many discussions on economic inequality in Japan, this paper focuses on the issue of income inequality among households and presents an analysis of how individuals' time allocation and leisure activities tend to differ depending on the income level of households and individuals.

Disability Inequalities in Time Use: An Intersectional Approach

Author: STELLA CHATZITHEOCHARI

Contributing author(s): Roxanne Connelly

 Disability has been largely overlooked in existing time-use research. Using data from the Multinational Time Use Study (MTUS), our paper documents disability gaps in different daily activities across all European countries. Acknowledging the heterogenous nature of disability and drawing on evidence on intersectional inequalities between disabled people, we proceed to examine the intersection of disability status with other ascriptive characteristics. We pay particular attention to indicators of socioeconomic status such as income and education. Our results reveal a disproportionate burden of disability status on those from disadvantaged backgrounds, in line with emerging evidence from the broader field of social stratification research. We conclude our paper by reflecting on priorities for future data collection that can facilitate a better understanding of disability inequalities in time-use.

The experience of aging in terms of time use

Author: Liudmila Shtompel

Using time diaries in 2023, the daily life of people aged 60+ in the Rostov region (Russia) was studied. The resulting average model of time use by older people in a number of parameters sharply diverges from individual indicators of time use, which confirms the hypothesis that there are deep individual differences in the behavioral patterns of older people and ways of aging. As a result, two polar chronometric models of the daily life of Russians over 60 years of age were built. The first model represents a group of people whose activity is characterized by a high degree of involvement in the lives of others: spending time together, helping around the house or outside the home, the desire to learn new things, work and volunteer activities, etc. The second model represents those who are limited to a minimum set of activities, are focused on satisfying mainly physiological needs, and do not realize the possibility of communication with other people.

During the study, we did not limit ourselves only to recording the amount of time allocated to each activity, but also analyzed respondents’ assessments of their own time allocation results. The assessments of most respondents express their overall satisfaction with the way they use their time, although some expressed a desire to introduce more active ways of spending their free time into their lives.

Our respondents 70-79 years old (compared to people 60-69 years old) demonstrated a more optimistic attitude, which was expressed in the desire to expand the range of available activities, in more frequent assessments of their health as “good”, in satisfaction with their own participation in life family and friends.

Identifying significant features and transformations in the everyday experiences of aging in people aged 60+ using time diaries can help improve the work of social services.

Intersectional Time Use Analysis: The Role of Caste and Gender in Shaping Leisure Inequalities

Author: CHETTUPALLY ANVESH

Contributing author(s): CHETTUPALLY ANVESH

This paper, therefore, delves into how caste and gender inequalities come together to structure time use by Dalit women in the urban Indian informal labor sectors. Depth interviews were conducted with Dalit women workers from the city of Hassan, Karnataka, coming purposively from different factories in the city. A qualitative research design was used. The current research seeks to understand how industrialization affected the social, economic, and education spheres of women, with focus made on changed time use patterns between professional and domestic obligations.

It was demonstrated that, even though industrialization proved to bear socio-economic fruits of opportunities, Dalit women still found themselves encamped in rooted caste and gender-based barriers. The outcome is, such barriers limit their freedom to manage time. They lead to a reduction in access to leisure and personal development opportunities and become cycles of self-modulating marginalization. While employment clearly improved them in terms of developing the awareness of rights and strengthening the self-efficacy to cope with social inequalities, basic socio-cultural structures governing their daily life have not changed in large numbers.

This research brings out very clear the need for policy interventions that go beyond merely providing employment to a certain fraction of the labor force, to the need for addressing some of the deep-rooted social norms and institutional barriers sustaining gender and caste-based disparities. This inequality that is intersectional therefore argues the need for more nuanced approaches to the formulation and implementation of policies, which directly target the unique challenges that face Dalit women within the urban industrial landscape.

Longitudinal changes in lifestyle behaviors from the perspective of ‘place’: towards urban policy development

Author: TAIKI KOBAYASHI

Advances in information and communication technology and the COVID-19 pandemic have significantly altered people’s lifestyle behaviors. The Tokyo Person Trip Survey, conducted for urban and transportation planning in Japan, found that the total number of trips made by people continued to increase until 2008 but showed a decline for the first time in 2018. Such changes in lifestyle behaviors may necessitate alterations in the functions that urban spaces provide. Hence, it is imperative to examine these changes, particularly from the perspective of ‘place’. This study was designed to elucidate these changes from the results of the long-term Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities conducted by the Statistics Bureau of Japan. The survey comprises Form A, which has been conducted every 5 years since 1976 and allows for long-term tracking but lacks location information, and Form B, which has been conducted every 5 years since 2001 and includes location information. This study used both forms to analyze the long-term trends and changes related to ‘place’.The analysis revealed several key findings:(1)There is an increasing trend in the time spent on personal errands, dining, shopping, rest, relaxation, hobbies, and entertainment, while there is a decreasing trend in the time allocated to sleep, work, study, commuting, household chores, and social interactions.(2)Since the 1990s, the time spent on hobbies and entertainment has significantly increased among people in their teens and twenties, whereas the time spent on social interactions has markedly decreased among the same age groups.(3)The time dedicated to social interactions has decreased in places other than homes, workplaces, and schools, such as in downtown areas.(4)In these locations, the time spent on social interactions has decreased more among women than among men.These results suggest changes in the functions that urban spaces should provide and imply inequalities in the benefits that people receive from urban spaces.

Exploring the Time Bind: Childcare Responsibilities and Occupational Mobility Among Urban Stay-at-home Mothers in India

Author: Aditi B. Prasad

Contributing author(s): Aprajita Chattopadhyay

Context

In the urban landscape of India, childcare responsibilities disproportionately burden mothers, influencing their ability to pursue occupational mobility. This study examines the interplay between childcare demands and women's career advancement, particularly among stay-at-home mothers. The temporal constraints imposed by childcare duties pose significant challenges, constraining women's participation in the workforce and shaping their career trajectories.

Objectives

This research aims to elucidate the complex factors influencing stay-at-home mothers' occupational mobility, focusing on understanding the role of support systems and the barriers presented by inadequate childcare infrastructure. By exploring the experiences, challenges, and aspirations of mothers, this study seeks to contribute to a deeper understanding of the dynamics shaping their decisions within the urban context of India.

Data and Methods

Utilizing a qualitative research design, 20 mothers in New Delhi were interviewed through in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Participants, aged 25-35 with at least one child aged five or below, provided insights into their experiences during a critical life transition. Thematic analysis was employed to identify patterns and themes within the narratives, facilitating a comprehensive exploration of mothers' perspectives.

Results

Findings underscore the significant role of support systems in either facilitating or impeding mothers' mobility, with access to reliable networks exerting a profound influence on their ability to engage in activities beyond caregiving. However, the lack of accessible and affordable childcare options emerged as a prominent barrier, limiting mothers' opportunities for employment and contributing to feelings of frustration and dependence.

Policy Implications

Policy recommendations include enhancing childcare infrastructure, incentivizing workplace childcare facilities, promoting flexible work arrangements, and facilitating opportunities for education and skill development. Addressing systemic barriers can empower stay-at-home mothers, enhance their occupational mobility, and foster a more equitable society conducive to gender equality.

Students Time Use Research (STUR) project

Author: Julien Masson

Contributing author(s): Prof. Mustapha Rachdi ; Etienne Langevin ; Prof. Alain Fernex

The STUR project focuses on the temporal organization of students. Firstly, by examining the connections this organization, based on the time allocated to various activities, has with learning, academic achievement, health, and quality of life. Secondly, it also aims to study this temporal organization in different work settings (in-person, remote, hybrid) among students.

STUR is thus an exploratory and experimental project, comprising three complementary components:

- It proposes innovations in the deployed methodologies (using electronic activity journals), promoting methodological triangulation and enabling a deeper understanding of the processes at play in the temporal organization of activities.

- It is multidisciplinary and organized in such a way as to allow all disciplines to work together, each contributing its own insights, on original data. The objective is to produce new knowledge on interrelated phenomena (learning strategies, time budgeting, efficacy perceptions, motivations, dietary behaviors, sports practices, and sleep) that impact academic performance and learning, quality of life and well-being, and health.

- Finally, STUR is clearly oriented towards national and local practices and policies and towards the various communities within higher education. The results will be disseminated to higher education stakeholders (Universities, CROUS, university health services, Mutuals, etc.). They will be used in supporting policies for the hybridization of education and in organizing students' work.

The purpose of this communication is to present the methodology and more specifically the development of the digital tool that will allow us to collect data on students' temporal organization of life. To do this, we have developed a digital activity diary. This tool is an application in which a student can gradually enter all the activities punctuating their day (eating, sleeping, studying, leisure activities, etc.), for a defined duration. These data can then be analyzed by researchers to study the temporal organization of all students using the application.

The selected sections are as follows: Sleep, Personal Care, Personal Time, Employment, Academic Work, Home Activities, Family Activities, Associative Political and Volunteer Activities, Social Life and Entertainment, Sports Activities, Hobbies, Media Usage, Travel.

Each of these sections is composed of sub-sections. In a first phase, we will experiment with this tool for 48-hour periods with voluntary students. Using this application installed on their mobile phone, they will select what they are doing at every moment of their day. The data thus collected will provide us with the most comprehensive data on students' temporal organization.

This presentation will therefore be an opportunity to describe the development and fine-tuning of this tool in more detail.

Gender inequalities in housework at age 10: The role of parental model

Author: Anne Solaz

Contributing author(s): Ariane Pailhé (INED)

Early socialization may be an important explanation for the gendered division of housework among adults. The aim of this research is to analyse the intra-family transmission of gendered roles. It measures the children's participation to housework, at the age of around 10, in relation with the division of housework and paid work among their parents during their childhood.

Using the large French birth cohort ELFE, we analyse the domestic participation to basic tasks (setting and clearing the table; tidying up own's room; helping with cooking; helping with cleaning; putting out the bin; taking care of pets) of 7,486 children aged 10.5 old in 2022.  

With the exception of putting out the bin, girls report a higher participation than boys, whether or not household characteristics are controlled for. First ordered logistic regression results on each task done by the child show that the gendered participation is little sensitive to the parental model, once socio-demographic characteristics are taken into account.

Who Is Doing the Housework within Immigrant Families? Cultural vs. Socio-Economic Factors

Author: Ariane Pailhé

Migration challenges gender relations. Immigrants who come from countries where social norms support a strong separation of male and female roles find more egalitarian norms and a less marked division of labour in France. This paper analyses how the socialisation context shapes the gender division of housework after migration, whether this influence diminish over time and across generations of immigration and to what extent are the observed differences are related to socio-economic and/or cultural factors. To answer these questions, we use new data from the Trajectories and Origins survey 2 (Insee and Ined 2020) that contains information on the gender division of housework within the individual and his/her parent’s couple.

We show that the division of domestic housework is unequal for all, with meal preparation being more unequal among immigrants, while shopping is better shared among immigrants and descendants of immigrants than among the majority population. Socio economic factors explain the gender division of housework among Maghrebi and Turkish couples. However, meal preparation remains more unequal for them than for the native-born, because of cultural factors. The division of labour becomes less unequal with the length of stay.

Running on empty: Gender, time allocation, and daily stress experience across the life course

Author: Maria Stanfors

Stress is a public health concern. One of the explanations to why women, more than men, receive stress-related diagnosis in connection to sickness absence is their responsibility for housework and caregiving. We investigate men’s and women’s time allocation and its association with everyday stress across life course stages (25-74 years), using individual time diary data (N=11,880) from the 2000/01 and 2010/11 Swedish Time Use Survey (SWETUS), including self-reported stress on the diary day. Women were more likely to experience stress than men, irrespective of life course stage. Daily stress is higher for ages 25-49 than 50-74. Both determinants of stress and stress associations with time use vary between these groups. Paid work is positively related to men’s stress, while caregiving – to own children or other adults – is the primary determinant of women’s stress. Results are independent of education, occupation, and income. Gender still structures individuals’ daily life and well-being.

input, output and outcome measures of human wellbeing

Author: Jonathan Gershuny

This paper specifies an exhaustive system of estimation which sets all economic inputs (both paid and unpaid work) against all outputs (final products from both market and non-market production). A final section provides a demonstration of how these inputs and outputs may be converted into the final outcomes of economic activity in terms of their consequences for health, happiness and (though not discussed here) environmental change.  Together these inputs, outputs and outcomes provide an integrated “dashboard” of indicators of national product and individual wellbeing. The paper makes no money-based estimates of national product, instead  separately estimating UK time allocations to work and consumption, and flows of intermediate commodities from the money economy into household-based production.

Input, output and outcome measures of human wellbeing

Author: Jonathan Gershuny

This paper specifies an exhaustive system of estimation which sets all economic inputs (both paid and unpaid work) against all outputs (final products from both market and non-market production). A final section provides a demonstration of how these inputs and outputs may be converted into the final outcomes of economic activity in terms of their consequences for health, happiness and (though not discussed here) environmental change.  Together these inputs, outputs and outcomes provide an integrated “dashboard” of indicators of national product and individual wellbeing. The paper makes no money-based estimates of national product, instead  separately estimating UK time allocations to work and consumption, and flows of intermediate commodities from the money economy into household-based production.

A Multinational Comparison of Time Use in Childcare between China, South Korea, and the US

Author: Henglong Luo

Contributing author(s): Man Yee Kan

Motherhood and the associated responsibility of childcare are commonly acknowledged contributors to gender income disparities. However, depending on how mothers perceive the responsibility, childcare has different implications for gender inequalities within households. Utilizing data from the China Time Use Survey and Multinational Time Use Study, this study investigates how the time-use pattern of childcare varies among mothers with different educational levels in China, South Korea, and the United States (US). Results show that higher-educated Chinese mothers allocate significantly less time to childcare, while their counterparts in both Korea and the US invest more time in this role. Additional analyses divide childcare into a labor-demanding dimension and a cognitively demanding dimension and further reveal that China's unique childcare pattern is mainly driven by the negative association between maternal education and the time-use in the labor-demanding dimension. These results underscore the nuanced implications of childcare for mothers, shaped by both cultural and institutional factors unique to each society and the diverse dimensions within childcare activities. The different implications of childcare offer valuable insights for studies on gender inequalities and education.

Excessive Working Hours in Japan: Approaching the Issue of Long Working Hours Among Regular Employees

Author: Takeshi Mizunoya

In Japan, the issue of "Karoshi" (death by overwork) and "Karojisatsu" (suicide due to overwork) remains persistent. In the fiscal year 2021, there were 90 cases of Karoshi and 94 cases of Karojisatsu officially recognized as work-related accidents. One of the underlying reasons for the persistence of these phenomena is the longstanding issue of long working hours in Japanese society. Therefore, it is essential to clarify Japan's working hours through statistics, particularly focusing on the working hours of long-hour workers. The purpose of this paper is to approach the basic reality of long working hours, particularly "excessive working hours," through statistical analysis.

As one criterion for recognizing Karoshi or Karojisatsu as work-related accidents, it is considered whether the weekly working hours exceeded 60 hours in the months leading up to the death. The Statistics Bureau of Japan publishes the proportion of workers working more than 60 hours per week based on the results of the "Labor Force Survey" and the "Basic Survey on Employment Structure." This paper aims to shed light on the prevalence of excessive working hours by targeting regular employees, where long-hour workers are prevalent, and looking at data on the proportion of workers exceeding 60 hours of work per week by gender and occupation, thus revealing a glimpse of the reality of excessive working hours.

Time Use Data Cleaning and Management: User-Written Stata Commands

Author: Elena Mylona

Time diaries capture individuals’ time use and provide a highly accurate account of the activities individuals are engaging in during the day while providing information on secondary activities, co-presence, location, and enjoyment. Time diaries measure the occurrence, duration, mode and/or purpose of our daily activities; for example, the duration of physical activity in the form of playing sports or commuting. Often collected on household level, time diaries allow for a thorough investigation of household dynamics, and can act as a rich data source to inform various social and health science disciplines. Yet, most of the time diary data potential remains untapped because of the difficulties associated with data cleaning and management. In this presentation, I will introduce a new Stata Package – timeuse -, a set of four user-written commands to make time use data management more accessible. Timeuse converts the complex calendar- or episode- level file in a new file that, where in like any common cross-sectional survey file, each row represents a person’s day. Therefore, derived variables of broad interest such as the total time devoted to the activities, number of times the person engages in the activity during the day, as well as the timing of those activities, are now readily available. In short, timeuse produces a customized and simple-to-use dataset, that allows researchers with no prior time use experience to extract ready-to-use information.Commands timeusex, sequence, and sequencex will also be introduced. 

A taste of the commute-free life: Post Covid-19 remote work expectations, travel time and travel modes

Author: Ugo Lachapelle

Contributing author(s): Richard Shearmur ; Priscilla Ananian

Background

As a result of the recent pandemic-induced experience of remote work for many workers, the relationship to the workplace is changing. A number of identified factors can create push and pull forces on workplace presence, especially for office work. Return to work mandates, home office feasibility and desirability and habits are oft-cited factors. As daily commutes constitute a friction associated with the return to the workplace, its influence on remote work is worth considering.

Objectives

We seek to assess how the experience of Covid-19 induced telework influenced expectations for future work from home (WFH). We hypothesize that workers with longer commutes  before Covid-19 that were able to reduce their travel during the pandemic are more likely to spend time in WFH once the pandemic has fully ended. This may vary depending on commute mode.

Methods

In the summer of 2021, we conducted a phone survey of workers to understand the impact of Covid-19 on work organization and locations (n=1,170). The survey included recall measures of time spent working in various locations and commute time in February 2020, before initial lock-downs. It also included similar measures for the time of the survey and a qualitative expectation of WFH post Covid-19. Controlling for potential confounders, we assess the relationship between mode-specific commute durations on expected increases in WFH. Ability to telework, having experienced telework and enjoyment of WFH are key control variables, along with socio-demographic characteristics.

Results

Workers with longer pre-Covid-19 commutes that were able to reduce their travel during Covid-19 through WFH are more likely to expect spending time in WFH once the pandemic ends. This is especially the case for those that commuted using public transit and by car.

Conclusions

Together, Covid-19 lock-downs and forced onsite work during the pandemic provide a quasi-experimental setting to study the impact of mode-specific commute times. For workplaces to be competitive with WFH, commuting conditions must be improved, especially for transit users. Active transport users are the least likely to desire more WFH, likely because of the expected benefits and enjoyment derived from active transport and the limited friction associated with commuting.

Keywords: Commute time; Work from home; Telework; Telecommute; Public transit; Walk; Cycling

Time poverty and mental health of Singaporean women with young children

Author: Yvette van der Eijk

Contributing author(s): Yee Ling Lok, Yan Ting Ng, Grace Tan

Time poverty is a well-established barrier to women’s societal progress and mental wellbeing. Singapore, a high-income city-state with a multi-ethnic Asian population, consistently ranks as one of the most overworked and sleep-deprived nations in the world. Although Singapore ranks highly for gender equality internationally,family norms remain highly gendered, with the general assumption that unpaid work is women’s responsibility. Despite this, Singapore remains one the few high-income nations that has never done a national time use survey, and little is known on how gendered time poverty affects women’s mental health in the Singapore context; a convergence of modern and traditional Chinese, Indian and Malay cultures. It is known that, in Singapore, women report poorer mental health,less sleep, and more depressive symptoms than men, and had disproportionate increases in unpaid work following the COVID-19 pandemic. This suggests that gendered time poverty is affecting women’s mental health in Singapore although this has not been systematically studied.

This study, funded by the Singapore Social Sciences Research Council, is the first to investigate time poverty in Singaporean women with young children, using time use diary methods consistent with internationally standardized (ICATUS) measures. This presentation will describe our novel and as yet unpublished findings from over 30 semi-structured interviews and time use diaries with Singaporean women with children age 0-7 years. These explored women’s time poverty, its impact on their mental health, their coping strategies, and cultural and societal factors that drive gendered time poverty in Singapore. We will also describe our plans to develop time use diary research for public health in the Singapore context.

Innovation plan for the future of Italian Time Use Survey

Author: MANUELA MICHELINI

Contributing author(s): Tania Cappadozzi Laura Cialdea

The presentation outlines ongoing innovations for the Italian Time Use Survey to improve timeliness and reduce survey costs. The goal is to move from the PAPI survey with a post-coded paper diary to a CAPI/CAWI survey with a pre-coded diary using an App.

There are three strands of innovation:

1. Simplification of the instrument, using a light diary that does not require the coding phase.

2. Innovation in data collection techniques, using an App for diary compilation.

3. Innovation in data processing techniques, studying the use of AI techniques applied to the coding of textual descriptions of activities and locations, in the perspective of a mixed-mode survey strategy.

The first result of this process is the pilot survey conducted in 2023, with the aim of comparing the estimates of key indicators obtained through the data collected with the traditional diary with those obtained with the light diary to check their accuracy.

Future plans include: a large test in 2024 to test the use of the MOTUS App (ESSnet project on Trusted Smart Survey Implementation). The aim of the large test is the analysis of the mode effect between the use of the App with the tracking of daily trips through geolocation and self-reporting of trips.

Finally, AI in data processing techniques aims to make the traditional process of post-coding paper diaries compliant with the faster process of smart surveys involving pre-coded diaries.

Intensity of Physical Activity (PA) and Sedentary Behavior (SB): Linking Italian Time Use Survey and Met

Author: Laura Cialdea

Contributing author(s): Manuela Michelini, Tania Cappadozzi

The effects of daily habits – Sleep (SLE), Sedentary Behavior (SB) and Physical Activity (PA) –  on health have traditionally been studied separately, while recently studies are moving towards a composite vision, taking into account the fact that time is limited during the day, therefore the time spent in each of these behaviors is co-dependent. Furthermore, in recent years, several studies have explored the possibility of using time use data to keep under surveillance PA and the SB of the population (Tudor-Locke C. et al., 2009; Deyaert et alt., 2017): new areas of research on time use have, in fact, the objective of linking all daily activities to energy consumption, analyzing how much time people spend in various activities by the level of intensity of PA, assigning the MET values. The objective of this study is to apply these methodologies to Italian data, using a definition of PA that includes not only sport and physical exercise (such as walking), but many other activities that involve simple daily movements such as playing, doing housework, gardening, etc., as well as an assessment of the level of physical intensity of the work activity carried outby employed people.

The link between daily activities and the MET values has made it possible to classify the activities into four categories: SB, light intensity activities (LPA), moderate intensity activities (MPA), vigorous intensity activities (VPA). In Italy, people aged 15 and over spend respectively about 35, 30 and 34 percent of their day in SLE, SB and PA. The latter in turn is divided into 6h03' of LPA and 2h04' of moderate-vigorous activity (MVPA): with only 6 ' dedicated to VPA compared to 1h58’ to MPA. The time spent in these behaviors can vary significantly between individuals and different population groups: this study try attempts Italy to move the traditional paradigm towards the compositional approach and conceptualize the new public health research field labeled as Time-Use Epidemiology.

Time use surveys, social practice theory, and activity connections

Author: Jennifer Whillans

Contributing author(s): Jennifer Whillans, Dale Southerton

Methodological innovation in the analysis of Time Use Surveys has opened new avenues for sociological research into sequences of activity and rhythms in daily life (See Dynamic Hamming Matching). This paper presents a theoretical innovation, by applying critical concepts of Social Practice Theory (SPT) to explore Time Use data to address new, sociologically interesting questions. It advances and unpacks the idea that ‘practices’ are revealed by identifying ‘constellations’ of ‘connected activities’. By examining the activities of sleeping, reading, and eating, it shows the two types of temporal activity connection (sequence and synchronisation), together with four forms of connectivity (degrees of uniformity/diversity, sequential directionality, time-varying connections, and symmetrical/asymmetrical relationships). Finally, I discuss possible future applications of the SPT framework to demonstrate this theoretical innovation's potential.

See the full paper: Southerton, D. and Whillans, J., 2024. Time use surveys, social practice theory, and activity connections. The British Journal of Sociology, 75(2), pp.168-186.

Preschool children’s time with their fathers: cultural and policy contexts in Singapore

Author: Wei-Jun Jean Yeung

Contributing author(s): Jiyon Lee, Nanxun Li

Objective: This study investigates the influence of family background and alternative caregivers including live-in domestic helpers and grandmothers, on the quantity and quality of time Singaporean young children spend with their fathers.

Background: Existing literature on children’s time with fathers is largely based on Western contexts. Singapore is a multi-ethnic Asian country with sub-cultures that may affect fathers’ family roles. Her unique cultural and policy contexts stressing traditional family values and human capital development with a high level of outsourcing of domestic labor to migrant workers and extended family members provide an interesting site for yielding nuanced knowledge of fathers’ involvement with children.

Methods: 24-hour time diaries of children aged 0-6 collected on tablets were drawn from the Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study (SG-LEADS) to examine children’s time with parents in caregiving, play and companionship activities, social activities, achievement-oriented activities, and travel.

Results: Results showed significant disparities in Singaporean young children’s time with their fathers by their family-level resources, ethnicity, and the presence of alternative caregivers. Having a domestic helper or a co-resident grandmother is related to about half an hour less a day a child spends with the father in caregiving and travel but not in play and achievement-oriented activities.   

Conclusion:These results reveal that paternal involvement with children is context-specific reflecting household organization, cultural norms, and policy differences, in addition to family resources and bargaining between couples, that theories should pay more attention to.

“No Time”: Religious Leaders and Time Poverty

Author: Claire Wolfteich

This paper examines findings of qualitative research with religious leaders about time use, time pressure, and leisure during and in the aftermath of the Covid-19 pandemic and efforts to address racial inequalities in New England, United States. The research analyzes the specific time pressures of a group of mainline Protestant pastors who led congregations during these twin pandemics of Covid and racial injustice. These religious leaders offer a window into time use, time poverty, and religious leadership, including time allocation shaped by gender (e.g., religious leaders balancing mother roles) and racial/ethnic identities (e.g., second-generation Korean immigrant pastor, African American pastor). The paper further explores the impact of religious frameworks/practices such as Sabbath to alleviate time pressure, shape time use, and reframe the meaning of time.

On Allais’ ‘Psychological Time’

Author: francois gardes

The article discusses the concept of psychological time which has been proposed byMaurice Allais (1966) within a macroeconomic monetary framework, and more recentlyin the discussions arising around the discount coefficient of future income. It proposesan explicit model of households inter-temporal and allocating time behavior by describingthe possible relationship between the inter-temporal substitution rate and the opportunitycost of time which could afford the missing link between consumers’ choices and macrovariables in an Austrian trade cycle tradition. The changes of the value of time during expansionsand recessions corresponds to an proportional change on time creating a parallelpsychological time (expanded or reduced), which involve direct and indirect changes ofhouseholds’ demand and saving. An empirical analysis is made on a pseudo set of surveyson American households during the Great Recession.

Bedtime negative affect, sleep quality and subjective health in rural China

Author: Jiyao Jiyao Sun

Contributing author(s): Nan Zhang, Jackie Carter, Bram Vanhoutte, Jian Wang, and Tarani Chandola

Background: The overall level of negative affect (NeA) has been linked to impaired health. However,

whether the diurnal timing of NeA matters and whether the NeA-health relationship is mediated by sleep quality

remain unclear.

Methods: Using a longitudinal dataset (2006, 2009 and 2014 waves) consisting of 1959 participants, we examined

the within-person impact of both bedtime NeA and non-bedtime NeA measured by Day Reconstruction Method

(DRM) on subjective health measured by Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), and the mediating effect of sleep quality

on the NeA-health relationships by fixed effect models.

Results: Bedtime NeA predicted poorer health, while non-bedtime NeA was unrelated to health. The deleterious

impact of bedtime NeA reduced and became non-significant after sleep quality was controlled for. Bedtime NeA

also significantly predicted impaired sleep quality.

Conclusions: Bedtime NeA is a stronger predictor of poorer health than non-bedtime NeA, and the deleterious

influence of bedtime NeA on health seems to operate through poor sleep quality. Therefore, interventions to reduce

bedtime NeA could potentially improve subsequent sleep quality, thereby protecting people to some extent

from impaired health status.

Time spent in caring for grandchildren and its impact on the mental health of Indian grandparents: A study based on LASI wave-1.

Author: Gursimran Singh Rana

Contributing author(s): GURSIMRAN SINGH RANA

Objectives: This study aims to explore the patterns in participation of Indian older adults aged 60 and above in grandchild caring and examine the association of caring for grandchildren with depressive symptoms. 

Data & Methods: The study uses the data from the first wave of Longitudinal aging study in India (LASI, 2017-18). The sample size of our study is restricted to 31,902 individuals of age 60 years and above. To study the depressive symptoms, we have used a 10-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) included in LASI. We have estimated the total amount of time spent on grandchild care in a week and further categorized it into High (more than 20 hours per week), Medium (between 8 and 20 hours per week), and Low (less than 8 hours per week). The chi-square test and multivariable logistic regression were used to understand the association between depressive symptoms and caring for grandchildren. 

Key Findings: Male older adults, on average, spent 17.3 hours per week on grandchild caring, while female older adults, on average, spent 19.2 hours per week. “Grandchild/Child prefers to live with you” is the most frequent reason for both male and female older adults to take care of their grandchildren. As the time spent caring for grandchildren increases, the likelihood of having depressive symptoms decreases. Grandparents involved in 8-20 hours of grandchildren caring are less likely to feel depressed (aOR; 0.65, p<0.01), tired or low in energy (aOR; 0.93, p<0.01), afraid of something (aOR; 0.69, p<0.01), feel alone (aOR; 0.63, p<0.01), have trouble concentrating (aOR; 0.59, p<0.01), and are more likely, feel happy (aOR; 1.18, p

Discussion: The protective association between grandchildren caring and depressive symptoms indicates that caring for grandchildren can benefit grandparents but only to an extent. When the intensity (average time spent in a week) increases to more than 20 hours in a week, this association weakens. However, these findings may not be causal because caregiving and health outcomes were observed simultaneously in our data.

Intra-household distribution of unpaid care work time in India: Role of Gender and Age

Author: Gursimran Singh Rana

This study investigates the distribution of unpaid care work in Indian households. Analyzing the 2019 Indian Time Use Survey, the research encompasses a sample of 89,325 males and 92,817 females. We estimated the share in total household unpaid care time (in %) for males and females across different age groups, taking into account selected individual, household, and composition factors. A fractional logistic model is employed to examine factors influencing the share of care work within the household. Adult females shoulder the lion's share, contributing 57% of the total household care work time. Socio-economic factors like education, marital status, and employment, significantly affect an individual's share in total household care work time. For adult females living in households with electricity (4.1 percentage points lower) or children under 6 (2.6 percentage points higher). These findings emphasize the pressing need to address and rectify gender imbalances in unpaid care work.

On the value of time and human life

Author: Philip Merrigan

Contributing author(s): François Gardes

The opportunity cost of time is estimated using a model based on 

domestic production (depending on monetary and time expenditures) and a direct 

utility (depending on produced commodities). Both factors of domestic production are  

measured by the matching of a Family Budget survey with a Time Use

survey. The new model is estimated on Canadian, French, Polish, US

and Burkina-Faso statistics. It allows the economic value

of human life to be estimated, based on the integration of the marginal value of each

instant during an individual's life cycle. This value is shown to

give a different pattern across countries compared to their per capita

GDP. Finally, the opportunity cost of time is shown to vary between commodities 

according to the possibility of substituting money and time in domestic production. 

It also increases between countries relatively to the average wage rate, 

according to the degree of liberalization of their labor markets.

Time Use Differences Between Men and Women At Work

Author: Mark Mark Ellwood

Traditional time-use studies often focus on time use differences between men and women in the household.  Measurement is focused on childcare, meal preparation, employment, leisure, sleep, etc. This research examines differences in the workplace.

For employed men and women, work hours account for 8 hours per day or more. Within that large amount of time, what differences are there between men and women, if any? This paper draws on over 500,000 hours of real time data collected since 1990 by employees themselves in 200 different organizations, located in 41 countries. Employees tracked their own time, usually for two weeks, with electronic TimeCorder devices.

This paper explores time use by men and women in a range of knowledge work jobs; senior managers, middle managers, sales reps, clerical staff, etc. to see where the differences lie. Hundreds of work-related activities are examined, including coaching employees, travel, breaks, paperwork, daily planning, and many more. For additional perspective, employees were asked about their ideal hours prior to tracking their time. An examination of actual versus ideal hours provides additional insights.

This paper is consistent with the IATUR conference theme of Novel Perspectives in Time Use Inequalities because it examines granular inequalities by specific activities in the workplace, using a unique data gathering approach.

Working from Home, Divisions of Household Labour, Childcare and Subjective Time Stress

Author: Lyn Lyn Craig

Contributing author(s): Irma Mooi Reci

Paid work at or from home (WFH) jumped during the COVID-19 and has not returned to pre-pandemic levels. Some research identifies positive effects of WFH on work-family balance, or suggests it allows parents to work and simultaneously care for young children. However, this multitasking can also be stressful and research into the intra-household experience of WFH, particularly of men, is sparse. In this paper we take a couple’s perspective which recognises the interconnectedness and mutual dependence of partners’ lives.

We draw on data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey, an ongoing annual longitudinal panel survey that first started collecting data in 2001 among 7,682 Australian households and 13,914 individuals aged over 15. HILDA collects data on paid work time and time spent in domestic labour and care. As explanatory variables we measure both total hours worked from home, and the proportion of hours worked from home (0-100% of total paid work time). The choices and opportunities for WFH can evolve over time and have a cumulative impact, meaning that the WFH arrangement and workforce dynamics of one partner are closely linked to those of the other partner. Therefore, we also construct a measure for partners’ WFH constellations, using and combining information on the share of WFH between both partners.

We test the relationship between these explanatory variables and reported weekly unpaid work hours in domestic labour and childcare, variety and gender share of home production activities, relationship satisfaction, and subjective time stress.Results show marked gender differences in both the incidence and effects of WFH, particularly in relation to the age of the youngest child. Since 2008 mothers of children aged 0-4 have become significantly more time-stressed than other women, and this is particularly so for mothers who work 80-99% of their hours at home. The time stress of fathers with children aged 0-4 has also risen over time, but only from 2016, to a lesser than equivalent mothers, and has no significant relationship with WFH.

Climate-friendly and healthy everyday life: Time Use and CO2 footprint

Author: Barbara Smetschka

Contributing author(s): Claudine Egger, Lisa Kaufmann, Willi Haas

In order to prevent the climate crisis from turning into a climate catastrophe, it is necessary to understand the links between individual everyday time use and climate policies in order to recognise options for change at both levels.

Based on work for APCC Special Reports (Haas et al. 2018, Görg et al. 2023), we have started to analyse the relationships between climate-friendly living in everyday life, time use and health-promoting activities. This analysis includes the calculation of emission intensities of everyday activities and the evaluation of time use per group of people according to gender and care responsibilities.

Görg, C., et al. (2023) APCC Special Report Strukturen für ein klimafreundliches Leben (APCC SR Klimafreundliches Leben). Springer Spektrum: Berlin/Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66497-1

Haas, W., et al. (2018): Österreichischer Special Report Gesundheit, Demographie und Klimawandel (ASR18) – Zusammenfassung für Entscheidungstragende und Synthese. Austrian Panel on Climate Change (APCC), Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien. doi: 10.1553/asr18_zusammenfassungs1

Smetschka, B., Gaube, V. and K. Mader. 2023: Time to care—Care for time. Frontiers in Sustainabilty. Sec. Sustainable Consumption 4 - https://doi.org/10.3389/frsus.2023.1070253

Smetschka, B., Wiedenhofer, D., Egger, C., Haselsteiner, E., Moran, D., and Gaube, V. (2019). Time Matters: The Carbon Footprint of Everyday Activities in Austria. Ecol. Econ. 164, 106357. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106357.

Weisz, U., Pichler, P.-P., Jaccard, I. S., Haas, W., Matej, S., Bachner, F., et al. (2020). Carbon emission trends and sustainability options in Austrian health care. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 160, 104862. doi: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104862.

Both direct CO2 emissions and the additional consideration of indirect emissions from upstream services as a CO2 footprint differ considerably depending on everyday lifestyle. In addition to the footprint of the healthcare system (Weisz et al. 2020), the footprint of health and care-related activities in households per person and hour will be analysed (Smetschka et al. 2019).

Time, and especially lack of time, determines many of our everyday decisions. Whether we walk or drive, cook our own food or buy ready-made, play with children or do housework: we make these decisions every day. They have an impact on our environment, our financial situation and not least on our quality of life and health. And they are also determined by the opportunities offered to us by the labour market, education, income levels and health and care facilities.

The calculations on the footprint of everyday activities according to different groups of people (gender, care responsibilities) were carried out using data from the 2010 Time Use Survey. After the release of the latest Time Use Survey 2020 for Austria, we plan a comparative evaluation of this time use data.

The Times They Are A-Changin' … Hardly: Evidence from Belgian time-use studies and a conceptual framework for understanding temporal stability.

Author: Ignace Glorieux

It is a well-known fact among time-use researchers that temporal patterns evolve very slowly. While media sources may give the impression that our society is evolving very quickly, time-use data show that many habits and traditions in daily life hardly change. It is apparent from time-use data that the division of household labor between women and men, collective rhythms, working hours, etc., do evolve very slowly. Unlike opinions and attitudes, habits and the social temporal order in which they are embedded appear to be very robust.

Based on time-use data from Belgium collected in 1999, 2004, 2013, we illustrate the stability of collective time patterns over time. Data from Belgium, which were collected during the COVID lockdown in the spring of 2020, indicate that even the implosion of crucial institutions in society barely affected certain collective rhythms. 

In this contribution, we present a conceptual framework that can help to explain this relative stability of collective temporal patterns. In this context, we pay attention to different levels of social time and how they are interrelated, thus providing an understanding for the relative inertia of these patterns.

A relational interpretation of the discordance of subjective and objective experiences of time-pressure and time-poverty.

Author: Clare Holdsworth

Discordance between objective analysis of time-use and subjective experiences of time pressure is a well-recognised phenomenon for time-use researchers. The observation that people might not be as busy as they think they are, is not very helpful in resolving the stress of time-pressure. In this paper I suggest that this dissonance can be explained through a relational interpretation of time and time-pressure. That is our experiences of time-pressure do not just relate to the volume of activities that need to done; but how these are experienced through ongoing establishing, maintaining, negotiating, transforming, and terminating relationships, both personal and professional. The paper is based on a three-year multi-method study of busyness which included a scoping review of time-use analyses alongside studies of diaries, self-help books on time-pressure and interviews about work/life balance (Holdsworth, 2021). The presentation will explore how a relational interpretation of time can be applied to time-use research focussing on time-pressure and time-poverty.  This relational interpretation will also be applied to inequalities in time-use and time-pressure, particularly in relational to gender.

Holdsworth, C. (2021) The Social Life of Busyness Emerald.

The Impact of Grandparents’ Childcare Involvement on Parental Time Allocation in Intergenerational Families: A Comparative Study in China and Korea

Author: Jialu Tang TANG

Contributing author(s): wang junhui

Intergenerational co-residence is a common practice in East Asia, particularly in countries like China and South Korea, where grandparents play a significant role in raising their grandchildren. Few studies compare grandparents' support across countries using time-use data. This study combines data from the Chinese Time Use Survey (CTUS) with data from South Korea in the Multinational Time Use Survey (MTUS). Our objective is to understand how grandparents' time use relates to parents’ time allocation in similar demographic contexts and in the context of intense competition in education in China and Korea. We integrated parents’ paid work time, housework time, non-study childcare time, and study childcare time, as well as grandparents’ time in the last three activities, and conducted Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analyses separately for each country.

The principal finding comparing grandparents' involvement in China and Korea: the impact of grandparents’ support primarily focuses on mothers’ time allocation for childcare and housework. In Korea, grandparents’ support influences both mothers’ and fathers’ time within the family. In China, grandparents’ childcare time is inversely correlated with mothers' housework time, but not in Korea. Regarding the impact of grandparents’ childcare time on parents' childcare time, in urban regions of China, grandparents’ childcare time positively correlates with mothers' childcare time. In rural regions, however, grandparents’ study childcare time is negatively correlated with mothers’ non-study childcare time. For Korea, grandparents’ study childcare time and non-study childcare time are positively correlated with mothers’ and fathers’ non-study childcare time in urban and rural regions, respectively.

Analysis of working time flexibility for platform workers

Author: Mar Vazquez-Mendez

Contributing author(s): Antonio Garcia-Sanchez

Internet access and smartphone ownership are the prerequisites for accessing the platform economy. Therefore, on the demand side we estimate between 3.5 and 4.8 billion users worldwide. On the supply side we consider all digital users who offer a good or service via a platform. Thus, Uber drivers, Airbnb hosts, E-bay or Amazon sellers, or any company with an online presence. A platform allows interaction between its users and, in general, the greater the number of users, the more valuable the interaction will be for each user. Think, for example, of food delivery platforms: the more customers join the platform, the shorter the waiting time for delivery drivers or drivers, and the shorter the distance to the pick-up or delivery point. For customers, the more delivery drivers join the platform, the shorter the waiting time (or the greater the likelihood of a delivery driver being nearby).

Much has been written about the pricing schemes used by these platforms. Many of them operate in markets with large fluctuations in demand depending on the time period. To balance supply and demand they use multiplier-based pricing: consumers pay low prices in non-peak periods, and in peak periods these low prices are multiplied by surge pricing. However, some on-demand platforms continue to use uniform pricing. But there is less literature on the determination of the working time of these workers, even though flexibility in working time is apparently the most valued characteristic for choosing this type of job.

In this paper, we focus on the working time of platform workers. Especially those platforms included in the so-called ‘gig economy’. These platforms match clients with workers who accept assignments of a specific duration. These workers have been in the spotlight in recent times due to their working conditions. Thus, the EU Directive on Platform Workers helps to determine the correct employment status of these workers and regulates the use of AI and algorithms in working conditions.

We propose a theoretical model for determining working time. In principle, it is considered that this type of workers can choose their working time flexibly. But evidence shows how workers have to be continuously available to meet any requirement for their services. It can be said that the boundary between working time and leisure time is blurred. Thus, for the analysis of the decisions made in this labour market, a general equilibrium model is proposed where there are workers in the platform sector and in another traditional sector. Moreover, workers are consumers as well, and the services provided by the platforms are consumed in leisure time.

The model determines in equilibrium the schedules for workers and their wages. Differences in time-use preferences condition the outcome. An efficiency analysis is also conducted to determine whether it is necessary for governments to regulate such markets.

A cross national study of gendered adolescent time use in East Asian and Western societies

Author: Grace Chang

Contributing author(s): Man-Yee Kan, Jiweon Jun

We examine the differences in how adolescents aged 10 – 17, spend their time on main activities, indoor, and outdoor leisure activities in East Asian (South Korea and Taiwan) and Western societies (United Kingdom and Finland) between the early 90s and the early 21st century. Studies have shown the important associations of daily activities (e.g., sports and exercise) on adolescents’ outcomes (e.g., mental health), and have shown globally that girls face greater mental health challenges than boys in teenage hood. Therefore, examining these gender gaps in adolescents time use have important implications on adolescents’ current and long-term development. This study’s main contribution is in including East Asian adolescents, providing new cultural contexts on family ties, parenting, and institution contexts on top of Western contexts. Using bivariate analyses and multivariate linear regression models, we examine gender gaps in time use within- and between-country. Our preliminary findings show that East Asian and Western adolescents’ have certain ‘clustering’ of activities, i.e., East Asian adolescents spend more time on educational activities and much less on sports and exercise than their Western counterparts, with the gender gap largest in sports and exercise. Our multivariate analyses show that cross-country gender gaps are largest for playing computer games or using the internet, with the largest gender gaps in the UK. For East Asian adolescents, the gender gaps are larger for Korea than the UK in domestic work, and larger for TV/radio and leisure outside the home for Taiwanese adolescents.  

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Author: Ruiqi Li

Contributing author(s): 1

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How Macroeconomic Policy Can Harness Time Use Data to Promote Productivity and Wellbeing: An Analysis across Countries

Author: Iris Buder

Contributing author(s): Odile Mackett (University of South Africa) and Iris Buder (Idaho State University). Funding provided by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

In this paper, we analyze time use allocation in SNA, extended SNA, and non-SNA activities across 7 low- and middle-income countries, namely: Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Kenya, Pakistan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Studying time use allocation is critical in low- and middle-income countries, given that time use inequality and time poverty take on different dimensions, compared to high-income countries, given the economic, social, and cultural context. In particular, we provide detailed insights regarding the demographic and economic context of these countries, analyze the distribution of time, and discuss how results from these surveys can be leveraged for macroeconomic policy-making. Specifically, we focus our attention on gender and demographic differences in mean time spent in activities, time inequality, and time poverty. We find significant gendered-differences in time use allocation, time inequality, and time poverty. Interestingly, we find that these are amplified in the South Asian countries studied, compared to the African countries analyzed. Next, we utilize the International Labour Organization’s 5R framework to highlight the importance of these results and in guiding the discussion on macroeconomic policy recommendations. Our recommendations have been bolstered by the in-depth background of each country analyzed, showing the contributions of rigid cultural and societal norms, infrastructure needs, policies associated with wealth accumulation, and the socioeconomic context on time use allocation. We also highlight important time-saving technologies, which may aid in rectifying the gendered-imbalance in time spent in extended SNA activities.

Globalisation and daily lives. Time use accross geographical aggregates of Norway 2023.

Author: Erik H NYMOEN

Contributing author(s): Erik Håvarstein and Elisabeth Rønning

We compare and analyze daily lives in different types of localities utilizing the recent Norwegian time use survey. 

Our general purpose is to explore to which degree has previously reported differences between urban and rural areas been leveled out by broad and ongoing processes, variously labeled as urbanisation of the countryside, globalization, shrinking of the world, and space-time compression.

The impact of excessive working hours in the early years on the health status of middle-aged and older adults

Author: Jing Jing Liu

Contributing author(s): Xiaohui Zhang

Based on the 1991-2015 panel data of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), retaining samples from at least two life cycle stages of youth and middle-aged or elderly individuals. This paper found a U-shaped curve relationship between excessive working hours and health. The mutual cancellation of the “compensation effect” and “attrition effect” results in an insignificant impact on health status in their middle to old age. The mechanisms found that for those working 45-53 hours per week, being overworked reduced the amount of exercise and sleep hours in youth and increased the likelihood of developing “overworked fat”, the central performance is the “attrition effect”. The income status and utilization of health care services of young people working 54-63 hours per week have improved, but the impact of the “compensation effect” is limited. When weekly working exceed 63 hours, there is a substantial increase in income, stronger investment in healthcare, relaxed budget constraints, and enhanced health management during their middle and old age, and overwork demonstrates a noticeable “compensation effect”. Finally, the heterogeneity analysis results indicate that the “attrition effect” mainly occurs in women, working in nonenterprises and high-skilled workers.

The impact of excessive working hours in the early years on the health status of middle-aged and older adults

Author: Jing Jing Liu

Contributing author(s): Xiaohui Zhang

Based on the 1991-2015 panel data of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), retaining samples from at least two life cycle stages of youth and middle-aged or elderly individuals. This paper found a U-shaped curve relationship between excessive working hours and health. The mutual cancellation of the “compensation effect” and “attrition effect” results in an insignificant impact on health status in their middle to old age. The mechanisms found that for those working 45-53 hours per week, being overworked reduced the amount of exercise and sleep hours in youth and increased the likelihood of developing “overworked fat”, the central performance is the “attrition effect”. The income status and utilization of health care services of young people working 54-63 hours per week have improved, but the impact of the “compensation effect” is limited. When weekly working exceed 63 hours, there is a substantial increase in income, stronger investment in healthcare, relaxed budget constraints, and enhanced health management during their middle and old age, and overwork demonstrates a noticeable “compensation effect”. Finally, the heterogeneity analysis results indicate that the “attrition effect” mainly occurs in women, working in nonenterprises and high-skilled workers.

All work and no play? Gender, time allocation, and leisure trends across Australia, Canada, Sweden, and the United States

Author: Maria Stanfors

Contributing author(s): Lyn Craig, Sarah Flood, Melissa Milkie, Liana Sayer

Over the past decades, men’s and women’s time use has changed dramatically, suggesting a gender revolution across industrialized nations. Women increased their time in paid work and reduced time in unpaid activities, while men increased their time in unpaid work, but not enough to compensate. Hence, significant differences in time allocation remains between men and women across Western contexts. There are indications that women have less time for leisure than men, irrespective of employment, marital and parental status with implications for their health and well-being, but consistent comparative evidence is lacking. There are considerably more comparative studies on gender differences in paid work and housework, indicating convergence at varying degrees, than there are comparative studies on leisure.

In this study, we investigate developments regarding men’s and women’s leisure time across four contexts with different levels of female labor force participation, policy ambitions regarding gender equality, and different social norms: Australia, Canada, Sweden, and the United States. We use nationally representative time diary data from 1990 and onwards from countries that feature different models for gender equality and work-family policy. The comparative approach allows us to assess both temporal and spatial dimensions of change in men’s and women’s leisure time and if gender convergence can be observed across the countries studied.

Our analysis includes descriptive part on trends in time allocation in average time for paid and unpaid activities (including leisure) for men and women (ages 25-54), from the 1990s through 2020. The goal is to establish whether there has been gender convergence over the recent decades for all men and women and dependent on whether they have children under 18 in the household. Then, we delve deeper into trends regarding leisure time, distinguishing between total time, sedentary and active leisure, and leisure time spent alone versus with family and friends. We estimate gender gaps in different types of leisure and adjust for confounding factors. We ask whether gender has a direct impact on leisure time, or if gender differences stem from differences in education, marital and parental status? We explore gender differences by means of OLS regressions and interactions. As an alternative approach we investigate which factors explain change in the time men and women devote to different types of leisure, and to further investigate differences across time, we employ an Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition. This method allows us to partition change in leisure between 1990 and 2020 into two components: the contribution due to compositional changes in the population, and that which is behavioral or unexplained by changes in population characteristics measured by the explanatory variables. This approach is relevant because observed changes over the past decades in leisure time may be driven compositionally, but also be behavioral, or driven by some combination of composition and behavior. Moreover, the driving forces between change in leisure may not be the same across county contexts. Our results contribute to understanding gender and time allocation in the 21st century and indicate that the gender revolution have stalled in terms of women’s leisure and time for recovery.

Trends in Leisure and Social Isolation among American Adults: Gender, Education, and Life Stage Variation

Author: Liana Sayer

Contributing author(s): Lyn Craig, University of Melbourne, Sarah Flood, University of Minnesota, Melissa Milkie, University of Toronto, Maria Stanfors, Lund University

We examine how leisure time, type, and social isolation have changed between 2003 and 2023. We consider how trends vary by gender, education, and life stage. In the United States, women have less leisure than men and the gender leisure gap is larger among married parents. College-educated women and men have less time for leisure because they spend more time in paid work, but less is known about how the college and gender gradient in leisure are associated with life stage differences in leisure. Further, research has not examined how intersecting gendered and classed leisure patterns over life stage are linked with social isolation. Concern about social isolation has intensified because it is strongly linked with negative mental and physical health. Using 2003-2023 data from the American Time Use Survey (https://www.atusdata.org/atus/), we advance understanding of gendered leisure differences in three ways. First, we document leisure trends through 2023, allowing consideration of patterns during the 2008 recession and the COVID pandemic. Second, we analyze how education, gender, and life stage affect leisure among all adults, rather than focusing only on those living with partners and/or those with children. Third, we consider associations of education, gender, and life stage with social isolation during leisure activities. Our approach allows us to identify how much behavioral and compositional factors account for changes in leisure over time and across groups. This knowledge is needed because of the myriad influences of leisure on health and well-being. Our preliminary results indicate a gender gap in leisure of about an hour per day, with most of the difference accounted for by men’s greater time in sedentary leisure. Our results also indicate that college-educated women and men report less sedentary but more active and public leisure, highlighting the role of education in social inequality, not just economic inequality.

Analysis of the Interfaces of Selected Household Appliances in Terms of User Experience Regarding Time Use in Daily Household Tasks

Author: Ana Frieda Avila Nossack

Contributing author(s): Luís Cláudio Portugal do Nascimento

Time elapse on domestic tasks is sometimes informed by various domestic appliances and devices designed to serve the users' practical needs. However, the interfaces of these pieces of equipment inform relatively little about the variable of elapsed time, with merely some references to parameters like duration and, in some cases, the possibility of postponing the operation. The operational characteristics of these experiences (like sequences and repetitions) and planning aspects (like frequency, and start and end time), as well as ideation aspects (in which cultural patterns for task execution apply) could be systematized with the aim of a product design approach that responds more efficiently to user demands about use of time. To this end, an analysis of the interfaces of some equipment used in cleaning activities, food preparation, and clothes washing has been carried out. Vacuum cleaners, electric pots, food processors, clothes washers and dryers, and timers were analyzed, based on the reports of 35 respondents of various different profiles in São Paulo. The data collection was done remotely in 2020 during the social distancing period, through interviews and ethnographic probes on the Whatsapp application, thus allowing for sending photos, videos, and reports by text and audio. The effort was made to identify important aspects of the passage of time during the interaction between products and users in such a way as to be able to suggest improvements in the interfaces with regard to the variable time in the execution of domestic tasks.

Household welfare and Consumption in Poland (2013) and Turkey (2014-2015) - Analysis of Cross Section Data on Monetary and Time Use

Author: Jacek Jankiewicz

Contributing author(s): Armagan Aktuna-Gunes

Individuals may compensate for their welfare losses during economic fluctuations/recessions by reallocating their time use in activities such as home production, informal working or leisure. In other words the time component can partially absorb the recession’s negative welfare impact and the phenomenon repeats itself cyclically. That’s why looking only to the variations of individuals’ monetary incomes would yield an incomplete picture of individuals’ welfare changes. The underlying cause of an inaccurate calculation of welfare mainly comes from the fact that non-market work time is ignored by researchers due to the lack of available data as well as methodology to capture how individuals partially compensate for the loss of their income during recessions.

The domestic production research briefly aims to measure households’ production of goods and services through the unpaid work of their members. The main reason is that, if household production is omitted, the economic welfare of the population does not include all goods and services and is therefore incomplete. The matching procedure is used to match data from two sources - HBS and TUS. The measure of inequality in economic resources among the population necessitates the development of a comprehensive calculation of time use productivity by estimating full income (market and non-market income) or full consumption (market and non-market goods) per hour of work (both paid and unpaid). We calculate the value of time estimated by means of a home production model to propose a valuation of domestic production based on the household’s time budget. Adding this value of domestic production to the wage obtained by the household in the labour markets gives an estimate of the household’s total production, leaving room for the calculation of its total labour productivity and for further estimation of an enlarged GDP. Enlargements of GDP implies considering the added value of the activity made by households in informal markets, the production of public goods and services, and the value of the domestic production by households. Econometric analysis of the statistical material collected allow for drawing conclusions on how Polish and Turkish households combine goods purchased on the market and the time to maximize their welfare. The results show that the monetary value of time spent on domestic activities is highly correlated with the socioeconomic characters of the households. In case of Poland the most current available TUS data set is from 2013; in case of Turkey the analogous data comes from 2014-2015.

The measurement of the size of informal economy with Time Use and Budget Surveys - A comparative study of Poland and Turkey

Author: Jacek Jankiewicz

Contributing author(s): Jacek Jankiewicz, Przemysław Garsztka

There are various methods to measure the size of informal economy. In most cases researchers focus on the activity of enterprises and there are very few approaches using the individual level data about households activity. In the latter case several issues have to be taken into account. One of them is the lack of databases containing information about activity of households both in the market and non-market sphere or monetary and non-monetary. That’s why first step which needs attention is the procedure of combining time use survey datasets with monetary budget ones. One of the main problem of such approach is that variables available in both surveys are not the same. Second is the method of matching itself. There are popular procedures like clustering or an individual matching by regression (time use equations for selected activities are estimated on households’ characteristics). Taking into account advantages and disadvantages of each we try entirely different approaches. First is method based on artificial networks, second is Random Forest Algorithm which is machine learning algorithm used for classification and regression tasks.

Our measurements of the size of informal economy are taken from the complete demand system method obtained from theoretical model. The calculations are prepared with two versions of information: data concerning only monetary resources and full income concept including monetary and household’s time values. Our results show that applying artificial networks method gives better results than matching by regression. It also has been found that income distributions differ according to employed information. Full incomes (value of domestic production included in monetary income) are more equally distributed than monetary incomes alone. Based on the calculations, it was noted that on average the size of the shadow economy is larger in Turkey than in Poland. It was also noted that the differences between the self-employed and those in the hired work in terms of the size of the shadow economy are larger in Turkey than in Poland.

The unequal division of unpaid work among Italian couples of different generations: does the persistence of traditional gender values matter?

Author: Maria Letizia Tanturri

Contributing author(s): Annalisa Donno

The huge changes that affected women’s lives in the social domain over the last decades have not been accompanied by analogous changes in the households, where women still bring most of the burden of unpaid work. Different explanations for this enduring inequality have been put forward, but it is plausible that in several contexts the persistence of traditional values has continued to reinforce the perception that differentiated gender roles are natural and fair. There are no many studies focusing on the influence of gender values on current division of domestic work in Southern Europe, comparing different generations.

This paper tries to fill this gap by empirically testing whether the division of unpaid work significantly differs among Italian couples according to women and men’s adherence to traditional (or less traditional) values, controlling for the structural characteristics of the couples (with particular interest to the mix of age, education level and labour market participation). The analysis is carried out on 9,500 Italian couples, a sample selected from 2014-15 Time Use Survey.

The hypothesis that those who adopt more egalitarian values also have more egalitarian behaviour is confirmed, but the differences affecting the asymmetry index are rather small, while those related to structural variables, in particular the employment situation of the partners, are much more important. Unexpectedly, male partner adhesion to more traditionalist value seem to affect more the asymmetry index than women’s one. Young couples are more egalitarian in their behaviour, but not all the generational differences are explained by the adherence to less traditional gender values.

Grandparent Time Investments in Grandchildren in the United States: The Roles of Gender and Family Structure

Author: Sarah sarah flood

Contributing author(s): Abby Stephan, Jill Juris, Lyn Craig

In the last two decades, the number of households in the United States that contain both grandparents and grandchildren has increased by more than 20%, totaling more than six million in 2022. Despite the prevalence of co-resident grandparents and grandchildren and the importance of adult time investments in children, detailed knowledge of grandparent contributions to caring for and raising their grandchildren is limited. Drawing on a vast literature examining parental time with children, we hypothesize differences in grandparents’ time investments in grandchildren by gender and family structure as well as variation by education, employment, disability, and age of grandchildren. We differentiate grandfamilies in which grandparents are raising grandchildren without a co-resident middle generation from multigenerational families in which grandparents, their children, and grandchildren co-reside. We further differentiate grandfamilies into those where the grandparent is raising children alone versus those where two grandparents share responsibility for raising grandchildren. We use time diary data from the American Time Use Survey from 2003 to 2022 to examine the amount and activity composition of time grandparents spend with and caring for grandchildren (N=5,557). We examine childcare time specifically as well as time grandparents spend with children to capture both the ways grandparents care for and raise their grandchildren under age 18. Preliminary analyses indicate that grandmothers spend more time caring for grandchildren and with grandchildren than grandfathers as do grandparents in grandfamilies compared to those in multigenerational families.

Social Class, Parental Separation, and Children's Time Use

Author: Cano Tomas

Contributing author(s): Tomás Cano

How parental separation influences parents’ and children’s time use has received little scientific attention, and, most of previous studies used cross-sectional data to analyse how separation is associated with time use.  This study is one of the firsts using high-quality longitudinal time-diary data to disentangle the causal effect of parental separation on children's time use and, ultimately, shed lights on the mechanisms explaining the intergenerational transmission of (dis)advantage. To do so, the study uses six waves from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children and fixed- and random-effect regression models. Results show that the effect of parental separation leads children to spend significantly more time in unstructured-typed activities (e.g., browsing internet without an aim, watching TV) and less time in developmentally-typed activities. These effects are twice as large for lower-class children than for upper-class children, with class gaps in children’s unstructured time increasing over time. Children's time use returns to similar pre-separation levels over time, but only after 4 years since separation occurred. The study findings are robust to different panel regression strategies. Overall, this study implies that parental separation negatively affects children’s developmental time use, especially among lower-class children, ultimately increasing social inequalities.  

Age, Period, and Cohort Effects on the Gender Division of Paid Work and Unpaid Work in East Asian and Western societies between 1980s and 2020s

Author: Man Yee Kan

Contributing author(s): Freda Yanrong Wang, Muzhi Zhou, Yujia Hua

This paper investigates progress in the gender revolution in paid work and unpaid work time across 10 East Asian and Western societies by employing Age, Period, and Cohort (APC) modelling. Previous studies on gendered time use trends did not distinguish among the APC effects. In this paper, we focus on the period effect, which is pivotal in understanding the dynamics of the gender revolution. We also test how the period effects are mediated by men’s and women’s educational levels. Suppose there is a continual gender convergence in paid work and unpaid work time. In that case, we should observe increases in men’s participation in unpaid work time and women’s decreases in unpaid work time and increases in paid work time across periods, net of the age and cohort effects. Results are broadly consistent with Kan et al.’s (2022) study: the gender convergence in paid work and unpaid work time progressed between the 1980s and 2010s but has slowed down or stalled in several countries since the 2010s. However, the trends in the closing of the gender gap in time use vary by educational groups, and the educational gradient in paid work and unpaid work time varies across periods.

Fathers adopting new practices? Changes in the time use of Finnish parents

Author: Johanna Lammi-Taskula

Contributing author(s): Johanna Lammi-Taskula, Johanna Närvi

This paper focuses on the time use of Finnish parents in unpaid household labour and childcare, as well as gender differences and changes in time use during the past decades. Parental time is characterized by several parallel developments in Western countries. First, there has been an increase in parents’ time devoted to childcare, related to norms and expectations concerning ‘good’ parenthood and an ideology of intensive parenting (Rose et al, 2014; Miller, 2017). Second, the idea of caring fatherhood has gained popularity, and fathers have increased their involvement in childcare, and, less markedly, in housework (Dermott, 2008; Johansson and Klinth, 2008). The Nordic countries have been forerunners in this change, especially by developing policies that promote gender equality in work and in childcare. Yet, ideas and practices related to the gendered division of labour change slowly (Ellinsgaeter & Kitterød, 2023). Despite a long tradition of women’s labour market participation, even in the Nordic countries, mothers use more time in unpaid labour than fathers, especially in families with young children (Grunow & Evertsson, 2016; Ylikännö et al., 2015). Moreover, when involved in unpaid labour, women and men often adopt gender specific tasks such as women/mothers doing the laundry or basic childcare, and men/fathers engaging in playing with the children (Attila et al., 2019).

We use the Finnish Time Use Survey data from years 1999-2000, 2009–2010 and 2020–2021 to study the time used in unpaid housework and childcare by Finnish mothers and fathers with children. We ask 1) How have the time use in different tasks of unpaid work and the gender differences changed over time? 2) Are there sociodemographic differences especially in fathers’ time use? We use regression analysis to investigate time trends, and factors related to the division of unpaid work in the family.

The preliminary results show that the gender gap in time use has continued to narrow in both housework and childcare, mainly due to fathers’ increased time used in these tasks. Mothers, at the same time, have decreased their time spent in housework, but they too use more time than previously in childcare, especially of under school-aged children. Furthermore, while higher education predicts higher participation in both housework and childcare tasks among men, the increase in time use in these tasks over the past twenty years has been stronger among lower-educated men, diminishing educational differences in time use in unpaid work among men. Based on the results, we discuss the possible mechanisms of change in different types of unpaid labour and reflect the meaning of the changes for today’s parenthood in Finland.

Mapping Time Poverty Trends: Insights from Multinational Time Use Dataset

Author: Margarita Margarita Vega

Contributing author(s): Oscar Marcenado, Monica Dominguez Serrano

In last years, poverty assessment has evolved beyond traditional income-centric approaches, adding a multidimensional perspective that consider various aspects of well-being. This study delves into the dynamics of time poverty, drawing insights from the extensive dataset of the Multinational Time Use Study (MTUS). Comprising over a million diary days from more than 100 randomly sampled national-scale surveys across different countries spanning the past 55 years, the MTUS provides a comprehensive view of time allocation patterns. Through a thorough review of time poverty literature, we explore its implications. Leveraging the rich MTUS dataset, we analyze variations in time poverty across diverse socio-cultural contexts and examine changes in time allocation patterns related to paid work, unpaid work, and available leisure time over time and across countries. Additionally, we investigate the interactions between income poverty and time poverty, shedding light on their intersection and influence on overall poverty dynamics.

The kids have gone to bed. Exploring historical changes and cross-national variations in sleep duration and sleep deprivation..

Author: Juana Lamote de Grignon Pérez

Sleep’s vital role in maintaining good health and bodily functions has raised concerns about a possible sleep deprivation epidemic. These concerns are particularly worrying for children, as insufficient sleep could detrimentally impact their education and have a long-lasting negative impact in their lives. However, evidence supporting this idea is primarily based on stylised questions or on no evidence at all. Time use diaries offer the best option to study sleep changes in the absence of nationally representative samples of objective measures. This chapter contributes to the literature by utilising a larger sample of time use diaries than any previous study. The first part of the paper explores changes in sleep duration and short sleeping and finds no evidence supporting a sleep deprivation epidemic because the prevalence of short sleeping is not increasing and, sleep duration is increasing in most countries. However, comparisons across countries reveal that lower- and middle-income countries consistently report longer sleep durations compared to wealthier ones, which would suggest that progress is making us sleep deprived. The second part of the paper will try to reconcile these apparently contradicting results by trying to explain cross national sleep variation as a function of differences in light exposure and physical activity.

Estimating how much children work: questionnaires versus diaries

Author: Juana Lamote de Grignon Pérez

The Sustainable Development Goals address the issue of child labour as a critical concern and seek to eliminate all forms of child labour by 2025.It is essential, however, to acknowledge the potential biases in current estimates, which predominantly rely on stylized questions. Literature on time use has consistently indicated that such questions can generate skewed estimates for different activities, including work. Although the literature focuses on the work of adults in wealthy countries, it is not unreasonable to expect that there may be problems too when measuring the work done by children in lower- and middle-income countries as well. This paper aims to bridge this gap by examining work estimate disparities derived from questionnaires and time use diaries for children in several low- and middle-income countries from Asia, Africa and South America, and including countries as important as China and India. The analysis focuses on activities included in the System of National Accounts (SNA) because care activities and housework are rarely enquired about in questionnaires. Preliminary analyses revealed that diaries show three times more SNA work and twice as much non-SNA activities compared to questionnaire responses (based on data from one country only). These results suggest that current child labour estimates produced by the ILO may be seriously biased.

Perceived danger and time allocation to secondary care in Colombia

Author: TRINIDAD MORENO

The present study examines the relationship between a child’s gender and the care time received by their parents in Colombia. Most literature regarding time use and a child’s gender has focused on the United States, where a preference for boys, particularly by fathers, has been the most robust result. Using the Colombian 2017 Time Use Survey, the present research studies the relationship between children’s gender and the time they receive from their parents in primary (the one that needs direct and exclusive contact with the cold) and secondary care (the one that implies caring a child without direct contact with them and can be done at the same time that another activity). The results show no relevant differences in the time received in primary care by girls and boys. But girls, specifically those between 10 and 14 years old, receive a considerably larger amount of time in secondary care by both their mothers and fathers. Considering the Colombian context of historical violence and high levels of violence, altruistic fear of crime can be an explanation of why parents focus their care on prepubescent and adolescent girls. These results call for exploring how environmental variables such as perceived fear of crime affect how much time parents perceive boys and girls need. 

Is marginal part-time work actually possible? Teachers absolute and relative time allocation to core and non-core tasks

Author: Theun Pieter van Tienoven

Contributing author(s): Petrus te Braak, Filip van Droogenbroeck, Joeri Minnen, Bram Spruyt

Part-time work is still an increasingly common strategy to balance work and family life in contemporary Western societies. Research shows that working fewer hours is associated with a reduced experience of negative spill over between work and family life. However, research suggests this seems mainly to hold for employees marginal part-time working arrangements. Additionally, part-time work is still a highly gendered phenomenon because it is mainly women that reduce their working hours. Not surprisingly, female dominated professions witness a significant increase in part time work. One such profession is teaching. According to the 2018 TALIS study report, one in five teachers works part-time.

However, the teaching profession witnesses other developments that seem incompatible with part-time working arrangements. First is the professionalisation of teaching. A professionalized teaching environment requires teachers to continuously develop, for example, through workshops, conferences, and other forms of skill developments. An important assumption is that such professional development programs can rarely be expressed in part-time form. Second is the increasing need to comply with accountability frameworks. These leads to the intrusion of 'non-core' tasks into the teachers workload, such as keeping students’ records, reporting to parents, and attending meetings. Again it is questionable whether teachers are be able to engage part-time in accountability.

The logic of part-time work suggests that absolute time allocated to different teaching tasks decreases as a function of the decrease in full-time equivalent (fte) appointment and that the relative share of of time allocated to these tasks remains the same. However, in light of the above conflicting developments, it can be assumed that this might hold for 'core' tasks (teaching, lesson preparation) but not for 'non-core' tasks (administration, education). It is expected that for marginally part-time working teachers (i.e., 0.7-0.9 fte) absolute time allocated to non-core tasks equals that of full-time working teachers and as a result, the formers' relative share of time spent on 'core tasks' decreases.

This paper puts this assumption to the test by using the 2018 Teachers' Time Use Survey. Using 7-day time-diaries of 7,709 teachers in Flanders it will analyse the absolute and relative share of time allocated to 'core' and 'non-core' tasks of full time (0.9-1 fte), marginally part-time (0.7-0.9 fte) and substantially part-time (<0.7 fte) employed teachers across pre-primary, primary and secondary education.

Impact of Work-Family Role Switching on Daily and Instantaneous Enjoyment: A Gendered Time-Use Analysis in the UK

Author: Zhuofei Lu

Contributing author(s): Zhuofei Lu, Man-yee Kan, Grace Chang, Henglong (Matthew) Luo

Due to the data and methodological limitations in current studies on work-family conflicts and subjective well-being, there is a lack of research identifying work-family role switching and its consequences using time diary data. Utilising the latest time use data in the UK during the Covid-19 pandemic (2020-2021) and a combination of ordinary least squares and random effects regression, this study objectively identifies the frequencies and actual time points of work-family role switching and their associations with British workers’ daily and instantaneous enjoyment levels. Specifically, this study yields several important findings. First, frequent work-to-family role switching is associated with lower levels of daily enjoyment among men without children but higher levels of daily enjoyment among mothers. Second, men without children and women tend to report significantly higher enjoyment levels during work-to-family role switching (compared to during paid work), but this is not the case for fathers. Overall, this study contributes to the current literature on work-family conflict by providing a novel approach to measuring work-family role switching and nuanced insights into understanding the gendered consequences of work-family role switching across gender and parenthood status.

British Workers’ Work Time Fragmentation, Time Pressure, and Anxiety

Author: Xiaomeng Shi

Contributing author(s): Xiaomeng Shi, Yucheng He, Zhuofei Lu, Yan Wen

Due to the changing economics and labour market in the UK over the past decades, work time fragmentation and its mental consequences have been subjects of ongoing debate in sociology and organisational management. This study adopts the latest time use data in the UK during the Covid-19 pandemic (2020-2021) and employs a combination of Ordinary Least Squares regression and the Karlson-Holm-Breen method to investigate the nuanced mental consequences of British workers’ work time fragmentation across gender. Surprisingly, this study finds that workers tend to report lower anxiety levels when having a more fragmented work schedule, regardless of gender. However, the benefits of work time fragmentation in alleviating female workers’ anxiety levels can be partially offset (34.1%) by subjective time pressure, whereas this effect is not observed in male workers. These findings underscore the complex interplay between work time fragmentation, gender, and mental health, highlighting the potential gender inequalities in time quality and mental health in the UK labour market and households.

Quantity or Quality of Time Use: What Matters More in Shaping the Perception of Time Pressure among Employed Parents and Non-Parents in the UK?

Author: Wei Zhuang

Contributing author(s): Wei ZHUANG

This research investigates how the quantity and quality of paid work, unpaid work, and free time impact the perception of time pressure among employed people and how the effects vary by parental status and gender. The quantity of time use is measured by the number of 10-minute episodes spent in pure paid work, unpaid work (including childcare), and free time activities. The quality dimension captures the fragmentation and multitasking time within each time use category. Using longitudinal data from the UK Time Use Survey 6-Wave Sequence during the COVID-19 pandemic years of 2020 and 2021, our analysis includes 3,432 observations after data cleaning. The analytic approaches are descriptive statistics and a series of random effects models. The key findings show that for non-parents, more paid work time increased time pressure while more free time decreased it, but housework time was not significantly associated. For parents, the amount of paid work, housework, and free time were all linked to time pressure, with more housework surprisingly decreasing pressure. Regarding quality, paid work time fragmentation, paid work time multitasking and unpaid work time multitasking raised time pressure for non-parents, while only paid work time fragmentation impacted parents’ time pressure more detrimentally. Gender differences also emerged, with free time fragmentation increasing pressure for mothers and paid work fragmentation elevating pressure more for fathers than mothers. The results indicate that both quantity and quality aspects of time use mattered, with distinct patterns between parents/non-parents and mothers/fathers. The findings have implications for understanding the interplay between employment, family responsibilities, and well-being in contemporary UK society. The study contributes to broader discussions on achieving work-life balance and the evolving dynamics of gender roles in families in the post-pandemic era.

Time use diary design for our times: the importance of multiple independent fields, using the example of child care

Author: Oriel Sullivan

Contributing author(s): Jonathan Gershuny; Juana Lamote de Grignon Perez

Abstract

We present a multi-field digital time-use diary design matching the information collected in best practice pen-and-paper designs such as the Harmonised European Time Use Survey (HETUS).  Many diary tools for online self-administration use a survey-style iteration of repetitive questions, and have consequently had to compromise on the amount of information collected in an effort to reduce respondent burden.

A general-purpose design, incorporating multiple independent continuous diary fields, is important because it offers versatility, providing data for a wide-ranging and still growing corpus of substantive and policy applications.

The online design developed at CTUR mimics the ‘light diary’ visual presentation, including all the fields of the HETUS diary.  Methodological work to date suggests that this visually intuitive design does not lead to an erosion of data quality or increased respondent burden. A CATI version of this diary has also been developed (also possible in CAPI, with the advantage that respondent and interviewer can look together at the diary day).

We show how the general-purpose multiple field design is important in the estimation of several key policy-related issues, using combinations of traditional and online diary designs:

1) ICT use (‘computing’ as a primary or secondary activity, plus time spent using ICT devices can be compared, and/or added to demonstrate the penetration of digital devices into our daily lives);

2) Behavioural risk assessment for the transmission of infectious disease (combinations of activity, location and co-presence permit the assignment of daily risk for different population subgroups);

3) Child-related time (primary and secondary care activities, together with child copresence can be used to generate a full picture of ‘child-related time’).  We present analyses showing the effects of the combination of these fields on estimates of child-related time, showing the increasing reporting of child copresence.

LABOUR TIME LOSS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF FISHERMEN DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN COASTAL MALABAR OF KERALA, INDIA

Author: Nirmala Velan

Contributing author(s): Nirmala Velan, Professor (Retired), Department of Economics, Pondicherry University, Puducherry – 605014, India. Email: nirmalavelan@gmail.com

The global pandemic Covid-19 resulted in complete lockdown of the harbours and landing centers that impacted fish production, distribution and marketing, seed supply and seafood exports world over. This affected the work days, livelihood and day-to-day earnings of the fisher-folk households, besides the labour time use pattern of the fishermen. Indian fishing sector experiences have been no different. Very few research studies have focused on the labour time use of fisherfolks (Mukherjee, et al. 2020; Sekhar, Sutha and Uma Devi 2020; Kundu and Santhanam 2021; and Shamsuddin, et al. 2023). Against this backdrop, the present paper proposes to examine the impact of the pandemic lockdown on the work hours and income of the fishermen in Kerala. It also analyses the determinants of work hours of the fishermen during the pandemic. Further, it surveys the coping mechanisms adopted by the fisher households during the COVID lockdown.  Kerala State has one of the longest Coastal range in India. The study is based on primary data collected from a sample of 320 marine fisher households in six fishing villages of Coastal Malabar in Kerala, during March-October 2022. The study uses statistical tools like simple averages, percentages, ratios, t-test and multiple regression.

The preliminary survey revealed that during phase-1 of COVID lockdown in Kerala, primary fishing, allied fishing activities and fish vending was nil, resulting in loss of total work hours and income. There was significant income loss and work hour reduction regardless of types of fishing crafts technology used during the lockdown period. The average work hours and monthly earnings of the respondents showed a decline in the post COVID period compared to the pre-COVID period, reflecting negative economic impact of the pandemic on the households.

By early April 2020, the Kerala Government permitted small scale fishing fleets compatible with pandemic prevention measures to operate. Consequently, the fishing livelihood activities gradually commenced reviving at a slow pace. During the period, majority of the respondents experienced unemployment, with only a small fraction engaged in alternative activities, such as construction work, fish vending or fishing allied activities. However, all respondents returned to active fishing a year after the initial lockdown, indicating resumption of normal fishing activities post-lockdown.

An analysis of labour time loss showed that period of mechanized fishing technology and age led to significant income loss, whereas experience, education and collective ownership significantly reduced it. The major household coping strategies during the lockdown period involved availing Government institutional help, mainly from public distribution system services, reduced expenditures and using past savings, besides community/private institutional help and borrowings from relatives/friends. The role of Governmental and non-Governmental institutions had been pivotal in facilitating fishing activities after the ease of lockdown restrictions. The Government and non-Government institutional membership and support improved after the COVID pandemic. Fishing operations were institutionalized by co-management actors with greater control of Government institutions in prior price fixing and facilitating fish sales through cooperatives. It is foreseen that the experience gained during the initial lockdown period would act as valuable input to streamline the fish marketing system and the fisher-folks’ wellbeing in general.

How Demographic Changes Shape Gender Inequality in Unpaid Work in South Korea 1999-2019?

Author: Jayoung Yoon

As women's labor force participation increases and families spend more time at work, the amount of time families can spend on unpaid work decreases. Recent evidence suggests that the response to these challenges is a gendered convergence of unpaid work, with differing outcomes depending on the type of care. While housework time has decreased, time devoted to child care has increased. However, there is a gap in research on how gender inequality in unpaid work intersects with the change in household type and the increase in the non-marriage rate. In Korea, over the past 20 years, factors affecting participation in unpaid labor have emerged, such as a sharp drop in the birth rate, an increase in the non-marriage rate, and a rapid increase in single-person households. Against the backdrop of a decline in the average number of unpaid work hours for married households and a narrowing gender gap, what requires further analysis is to uncover the factors that define the new nature of gender inequality. This study uses data from the Korean Living Time Survey from 1999 to 2019 to analyze how household size and marital/child status affected the degree and nature of gender inequality in unpaid work by cohort group.

Development and Integration of the GeoService microservice to improve TUS data collection via MOTUS.

Author: Joeri Minnen

Contributing author(s): Ken Peersman

This paper presents the development and integration of the GeoService microservice into the data collection platform MOTUS.

The microservice is designed to handle geolocation data, which serves as a crucial input for a time use data collection application. The primary objective of this microservice is to accurately capture, process, and deliver geolocation data to facilitate the registration of users' activities. The integration of this microservice with the application provides an option for respondents to use real-time location tracking data, aiming to lower the user burden and to higher the quality of registration.

In this presentation we will first discuss the microservice architecture taking into account scalable and efficient technologies and how the microservice is integrated with the existing MOTUS data collection platform. This architecture ensures that geolocation data is processed in real-time and is readily available for analysis and visualization. Key features of the microservice include location accuracy optimization, minimal battery consumption, and efficient handling of large datasets. Additionally, the microservice employs advanced security measures to protect user data and ensure privacy compliance.

In a second part the UI/UX of the MOTUS application will be discussed, and in particular how the respondents can make use of the provided output from the microservice. In this way the entire end-to-end solution for collecting TUS data with the integration of a smart component is shown. Along with showing the UI/UX interface also the back-office configuration is presented for researchers to setup their own studies.

This work is part of the Smart Survey Implementation project (Grant Agreement Number: 101119594 (2023-NL-SSI), funded by Eurostat and co-funded by the European Union.

School bell blues? How workload and work intensification fuel teacher depression

Author: Petrus te Braak

Contributing author(s): Theun Pieter van Tienoven; Filip Van Droogenbroeck; Bram Spruyt

In this contribution, we examine the impact the organisation of teachers’ working time, particularly workload, workload composition, and work intensification, on symptoms of depression through a comprehensive time-diary study. Time-diaries, valued for their high validity, provide a more accurate representation of working time than surveys, which are subject to several biases. Unlike surveys, time-diaries not only measure the number of hours worked, but also allow for an in-depth analysis of workload composition and facilitate the examination of work intensification through derived indicators of working time, such as fragmentation (i.e., how often working time is interrupted by other activities), diversity (i.e., the variety of tasks performed), and contamination (i.e., how frequently work is combined with other tasks). These factors are particularly relevant given the cyclical, flexible, and irregular hours that characterise the teaching profession, often extending beyond conventional workplace boundaries. This study used data from a large-scale time-diary study involving 7,500 teachers in Flanders, Belgium, who logged over 1,250,000 hours of work activities across seven days. Our analysis investigates how workload, workload composition, and both objective and subjective, factors of work intensification affect depressive symptoms such as emotional exhaustion and cynical depersonalisation. Our analyses indicate that a higher workload has limited consequences for depressive symptoms, and that workload composition does not significantly impact these outcomes. Instead, it is more critical to focus on the characteristics of work intensification. Notably, the subjective rather than the objective dimensions of work intensification, particularly time pressure, play a significant role in affecting symptoms such as emotional exhaustion and cynical depersonalisation. These results underscore the importance of considering workload intensification in addressing mental health outcomes in the teaching profession.

When safety ticks: Temporality in urban women's safety perceptions

Author: Petrus te Braak

Contributing author(s): Theun Pieter van Tienoven

This poster presents a focused exploration of how temporal factors influence gendered safety perceptions in urban public spaces. Drawing on findings from the systematic literature review titled “Navigating the City”, it explores the nuanced ways in which temporality impacts women’s feelings of safety and insecurity in various urban environments. The analysis reveals that safety perceptions among women fluctuate significantly during days and weeks. This temporal variability interacts with social, environmental, and individual factors, illustrating complex patterns that have important implications for urban planning and public policy.

How telework influences subjective well-being considering the mediating role of activity fragmentation

Author: Qiuju Xue

Contributing author(s): Baiba Pudane, Maarten Kroesen

Telework has expanded due to ICT advancements and the COVID-19 pandemic, with policymakers and managers advocating it for better work-life balance and well-being. However, its impact on subjective well-being remains debated; it enhances family-work integration and productivity but can increase stress due to blurred work-home boundaries.

This study aims to investigate whether changes in subjective well-being relate to activity fragmentation. Concretely, we hypothesize that telework may lead to more fragmented daily activities, potentially diminishing workers’ well-being by increasing the mental burden when switching between activities. We utilize a structural equation model (SEM) to empirically evaluate the potential mechanisms by which telework influences subjective well-being, drawing on a comprehensive literature review. This model considers key mediating factors such as perceived mental and physical health, work satisfaction, social contact satisfaction, attitudes towards remote work, and the degree of activity fragmentation. 

Data used to estimate the models were drawn from the Netherlands Mobility Panel (MPN) and Time Use Survey (TBO) from the Netherlands Institute for Social Research. The MPN data assesses spatial fragmentation while the TBO data assesses both spatial and temporal fragmentation in fixed locations.  Our preliminary results based on MPN data suggest that the influence of telework on subjective well-being is mediated through people’s perceived mental and physical health and their work satisfaction. Spatial fragmentation does not show a significant effect . Further analysis based on TBO data will be conducted to validate the proposed SEM, particularly the mediating role of temporal fragmentation. The findings are expected to provide theoretical and practical guidance for policymakers and managers aiming to optimize remote work benefits.

The Work Multitasking and Employee Subjective Well-being: Three Dimensional Perspectives from UK Time Use Survey during COVID-19

Author: Yucheng He

Contributing author(s): Muzhi Zhou, Zhuofei Lu

Societal speed up which is the increasing tempo of daily life including multitasking has been linked to subjective well-being of individuals in the labor market. However, previous research often conceptualized multitasking as an indicator of time pressure. This study empirically investigated how the work multitasking influence subjective enjoyment and how this relationship varies across gender in time quantity, time use pattern and instantaneous time experiencing perspectives, respectively, by using Ordinary Least Squared Regressions, Sequence Analysis and Random Effect Models. From UK Time Use Survey (2020-2021), we find that work multitasking is positively associated with higher levels of temporal activity enjoyment. However, female individuals generally report lower levels of temporal activity enjoyment compared to their male counterparts. Specifically, from the time quantity side, the frequency of work multitasking is found to increase employees’ average temporal activity enjoyment more among male groups than female. From the time pattern perspective, we identity 5 distinct time use patterns through sequence analysis which are normal worker cluster, unpaid worker cluster, shift worker cluster, all-day multitasking worker cluster and work multitasking cluster. Employees belonging to the unpaid worker group and the work multitasking time use pattern report higher levels of temporal activity enjoyment compared to those in the normal worker cluster. Meanwhile, female still shows lower enjoyment level than male in all time use patterns. From the instantaneous time experiencing perspectives, both work multitasking and other multitasking have higher instantaneous enjoyment level compared pure work activity in each 10-minute time slot. Notably, Other type multitasking is associated with better enjoyment level than work multitasking. Moreover, female workers’ enjoyment levels remain consistently lower than their female counterparts across all activity categories and this effect contribute to females’ enjoyment of work multitasking and pure work activity are almost at one level. Taken together, these findings suggest a nuanced and complex understanding about the consequence of ‘role overload’, ‘time deepening’ and ‘time control’ and their interaction with gender in such “speed-up” society. It highlights the need for a more gender design in future labor market policies for policymakers as well.

The Gendered Multitasking and Employee Time Pressure in the UK during Covid19: The role of Parenthood

Author: Yucheng He

Contributing author(s): Muzhi Zhou

Despite a wealth of research on multitasking and subjective well-being indicators, few studies have examined the effect of multitasking sequences on subjective time pressure, specifically from the perspective of time use patterns. This study aims to address this gap by utilizing Sequence Analysis with Dynamic Hamming Distance and Ordinary Least Square to investigate the consequences of multitasking schedules on subjective time pressure. Using the latest nationally representative time-use survey data in the UK (2020-2021), we identify four unique patterns and five unique patterns for male and female gender groups. For male employees, there are (1) ‘Normal Worker’, (2) ‘Unpaid Worker’, (3) ‘Shift Worker’, (4) ‘All-day Multitasking’. Compared to ‘Normal Worker’, ‘All-day Multitasking’ is associated with higher subjective time pressure and ‘Unpaid Worker’ have lower subjective time pressure reversely. Additionally, employees with children have significantly higher subjective time pressure generally, and for those in ‘All-day Multitasking’ time use cluster, the margins show the highest time pressure across all male groups. For female employees, there are (1) ‘Normal Worker’, (2) ‘Unpaid Worker’, (3) ‘Shift Worker’, (4) ‘All-day Multitasking’, (5) ‘Work Multitasking Worker’. ‘Unpaid Worker’ group tend to have lower time pressure and ‘All-day Multitasking’ group tend to have higher time pressure than ‘Normal Worker’. Notably, female employees tend to have similar level of time pressure regardless of parenthood status in the ‘Normal Worker’ pattern. However, it is found that mothers experience higher time pressure, particularly in the "Work Multitasking Worker" pattern. On the other hand, women without children in the "Work Multitasking Worker" pattern report lower time pressure compared to the "Normal Worker" group. These findings reveal, employees who are parents and belong to multitasking time use patterns tend to experience higher levels of time pressure for both gender group which may contribute to ‘role overlap’ and ‘role overload’, highlighting the need to enhance subjective well-being in future labor market policies for policymakers and governments.

Leveraging Modernization of Legacy Surveys - Insights on Onboarding and Modes from an Experimental Time Use Survey with MOTUS by Statistics Belgium.

Author: Patrick Lusyne

Contributing author(s): Theun Pieter van Tienoven VUB - Department of Sociology, Joeri Minnen HBITS

Belgium has a rich history in Time Use Research, largely due to the efforts of the TOR department of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). Statistics Belgium (Statbel) has been collaborating with TOR since the turn of the century, handling the fieldwork for various Belgian time use surveys. Due to their diary-based approach, time use surveys have always been distinct in Statbel’s data portfolio. However,  over the last couple of years, time-use research has become more important due to the technological advancements it’s featuring and its front-line status in response rate crisis.

The MOTUS platform, developed by Hbits, a VUB spin-off, is one of these key innovations in the field. Originally created to modernize time-use research, MOTUS’ explicit modular capacities make us even consider the platform as a mobile-oriented alternative or supplement to our legacy survey production system. Furthermore, innovative developments such as geo-tracing and receipt scanning will soon allow MOTUS to collect burdensome data (e.g., time-place data) with unparalleled efficiency. Tackling the response burden is vital in the coming years, as Statbel, like many countries, has seen response rates decline dramatically over the last decade. Hence, the need for a paradigm shift in survey production methods by harnessing these recent technological and methodological innovations.

SSI (Smart Survey Implementation) is a Eurostat-funded project aiming to implement smart surveys. It involves a consortium of European National Statistical Institutes and academic partners. Statbel’s contribution to this project includes organizing an experimental Time Use Survey using MOTUS. The fieldwork of this study is ongoing, and we aim to collect data from 1.800 respondents net. The gross sample is randomized over several experimental conditions, two invitation letters, and various modes: app, web, or paper. The entire sample (gross) has been linked to Statbel’s admin data portfolio,  leveraging the deep insights in socio-demographic differences in mode choice, onboarding, and drop-out.

Our presentation will share our study's early quantified results and insights, focusing on the challenges we faced in getting and keeping people on board and social-demographic disparities. These findings have encouraged Statbel to continue investing in modernization, and the field of time use, together with Motus, will spearhead that effort. Our presentation will also serve to outline these future plans.

Son preference and time investments in children revisited: Evidence from the latest Indian Time Use Survey

Author: Sneha Lamba

Son preference is manifested in both explicit and implicit gender discrimination at birth and during younger ages in India. One way that parents may explicitly discriminate between sons and daughters is through the amount of and quality of childcare time provided. This study uses data from the recent Indian Time Use Survey carried out in 2019 to examine whether there is a relationship between child gender and parental time investments. Analyses are carried out for a sample of households with only one child below the age of five. Results find that the gender of the child has no significant effect on the amount of childcare time provided by all household members taken together, as well as mothers, and fathers individually at these young ages. In contrast to earlier works that find evidence of gender discrimination in parental time investments in India, using data from 1998-1999, this paper finds that household members do not discriminate between sons and daughters, at ages below five years.

Spousal Bargaining and Time Allocations among Married Couples in India

Author: Leena Bhattacharya

Contributing author(s): Arthur Van Soest

The extent to which bargaining power alters time allocations of married couples has been studied in developed countries, but remains an open question in many developing countries, primarily due to the absence of timely data. We use the India Time Use Survey (TUS) 2019, the first survey to cover the whole of the Indian Union, and examine whether spouses' relative education level acts as bargaining power and alters their time allocations. We consider the time allocations of married couples aged 20-59 years residing in nuclear families in India. Marginal effects from Tobit models show that wives with a higher education relative to their husbands spent more time on paid work and less time on household production, leisure and sleep than those with a lower relative education level. Conversely, husbands with higher relative education levels allocate less time to childcare and household production, and more time to sleep. Expanding our analysis to include data from the TUS 1998-99, specifically examining the six states present in both surveys, we observe that, unlike the 2019 findings, the 1998-99 data show no significant difference in time spent on household production and leisure between wives with higher relative education and lower relative education but wives with the same education level as their husbands spent significantly less time on both activities. Our findings suggest that higher relative education has increasingly acted as a form of bargaining power in recent years, leading to a reduction in inequality in intrahousehold time allocation among couples where the wife has higher education compared to her husband. These results carry significant implications for Sustainable Development Goal 5, as they quantify how women's education can promote gender equality in the distribution of time across paid and unpaid activities.

Time Use Patterns and Influences Among French Technological Students In Two Different Study Programs

Author: Lei Luo

Contributing author(s): Alain Fernex

Based on the "National Survey on Student Living Conditions in 2016" in France, this study investigates the time use patterns of French technological students and examines the impact on their academic performance and stress occurrence. From the survey, we obtained 1,148 valid responses from technological students. The analysis revealed that students could be categorized into four distinct groups according to their time allocation for coursework, personal study, and paid work. It was observed that students who dedicated more time to personal study attended fewer classes and engaged less in paid work. Additionally, there is a significant correlation between the time allocation patterns and the type of educational program. Students enrolled in work-study programs demonstrated more effective study habits. Moreover, fewer students in work-study programs reported experiencing stress compared to those in full-time study programs. These findings suggest that the academic performance and exam results of French technological students in work-study programs are not adversely affected by their engagement in paid work. Further research is warranted to elucidate why work-study program students exhibit more efficient study behaviors than their full-time counterparts.

Integrated Assessment of Gender and Environmental Inequality relationships through Time Use Surveys

Author: Sara Pavesio

Contributing author(s): Jaime Nieto Vega and Óscar Carpintero Redondo

Human-induced climate change is one of the biggest challenges of our century.  One of the main tools used to analyse the relationship between socioeconomic factors, energy, and the environment, as well as the possible policies to mitigate and to adapt climate change are the Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs). IAMs are often employed in the assessment and guidance of policies aimed at tackling climate change and precisely one of the main limitations is the lack of representation of the different socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, gender inequality has rarely been considered in IAMs and, when considered, in a very limited way (mainly via labour participation rates) and disregarding its multidimensional nature of gender inequality.

Considering and understanding the interrelations of this inequality is central. Specially, in IAMs it’s important to understand two. First comprehend the link with climate change is crucial due to the feedback loops between them, for example, behaviour and consumption patterns are gender-determined and therefore, the effects on GHG emissions may vary depending on gender distributional considerations. In addition, climate change impacts on society may also be different depending on gender. The second important relation is with the labour market, through the working day, the earnings, among others, which relation has been widely studied in literature.

A way in which the second relation has been studies is through Time Use Surveys (TUS). These surveys allow as to look at the different ways in which men and women tend to consume their time, including the paid and non-paid jobs and the working hours which allows as to look not only into the gender-inequality but also in the primary income distribution.

This study highlights the lack of consideration of gender inequalities in existing IAMs and underscores the need to integrate them. Moreover, the study explores the TUS, as well as the suitability of their different regional/national versions (ATUS, HETUS, STUS, UKTUS) to be integrated into IAMs. This analysis classifies and compares different TUS considering the type of information provided, disaggregation, units, etc. The aim of the work is exploring the feasibility of TUS to enrich IAMs by providing granularity and additional gender-related causal links, particularly if applied to household’s composition and to improve the causal loops between the population, economy, energy and climate, as well as, to look to the primary income disaggregation, which enlarges the gender inequality.

By relating the IAMs and the TUS we could offer a more precise and holistic evaluation of climate policies, ensuring that gender-specific vulnerabilities are addressed. Moreover, this would allow us to introduce some more specific demand-driven policies, such as behavioural-change scenarios, e.g. consumption patterns or the exchange of roles and responsibilities.

The Harmonised European Time Use Survey (HETUS): data collection and dissemination of the 2020 round and preparations for the next implementation

Author: Maria Miceli

Please see attached document

Overlapping housework time and marital satisfaction of dual-earner couples in Korea

Author: Alexandra Eszter Urbán

Previous research has established a connection between couples’ shared leisure time and marital satisfaction, reinforcing the common wisdom that "couples that play together stay together." However, it remains unclear if this holds true for other shared activities, such as household chores, which might not be as pleasurable or emotionally satisfying.

South Korea currently faces a critical societal issue: its lowest fertility rate, recorded at 0.87 in 2023. This decline is influenced by decreasing marriage rates and increasing divorce rates among Korean couples. Gender inequalities in the distribution of housework significantly impact marital (dis)satisfaction. In dual-earner households, Korean wives often face severe discrepancies, losing over two hours of leisure time daily to household obligations.

Most previous studies on household work have focused on the quantity of time spent on different activities, with less attention given to the overlap of couples' housework time. Interestingly, in Korean couples, an increase in husbands' contributions to household chores does not reduce the wives' share but instead tends to increase it. This paradox arises because husbands often "help out" by doing the same activities alongside their wives rather than independently. As a result, the wife's household burden remains unchanged, as husbands' assistance does not alleviate their workload but rather adds to it. This suggests that wives may perceive their husbands' help as a "nuisance." More research is needed to understand how this imperfect help affects marital satisfaction.

The current research aims to address this question using data from the 2019 Korean Time Use Survey. Specifically, it investigates how husbands' overlapping housework time influences marital satisfaction and whether more independent unpaid work time not only reduces wives' household burden but also positively affects the couple's marital satisfaction.

Persisting Gender Inequality: Time Use for Paid and Unpaid Work

Author: jyoti thakur

Based on Time Use Surveys of 1998 and 2019, the paper investigates whether there has been an increase in   similarity between men and women's time utilization by using dissimilarity index; nature, pattern and trend of time allocation of men and women across different activities; and the impact of marriage and education on the allocation of time across different activities in urban India. In India, a significant progress in some developmental aspects have been achieved toward gender equality in recent decades; however, inequities in the distribution of household work and care work responsibility persist due to the existing gender norms and stereotypes. Women and men's time usage patterns alter dramatically as a result of life events such as marriage and children. Empirically, it is evident that women bear the prominent brunt of the unpaid work. Consequently, despite attaining higher educational qualifications, women participation in paid work remains abysmally low.

Depopulation of rural areas and subjective well-being of commuters

Author: Erica Aloe

Contributing author(s): Roberta Di Stefano, Marina Zannella, Alessandra De Rose

Depopulation processes are strongly connected with ageing, driven by a lower birth rate compared to the death rate and negative net migration. High emigration rates primarily involve young people who leave older-populated, typically rural and fragile areas, due to limited economic and social opportunities (Reynaud and Miccoli, 2018). An alternative to migration is commuting, which may help counteract depopulation. However, travel-to-work or travel-to-school patterns significantly impact subjective well-being and quality of life, especially for residents in inner areas. This paper aims to study the relationships between depopulation processes, mobility choices, daily life activities and individual well-being by taking into account the spatial heterogeneity between those living in small towns and disadvantaged areas versus those living in core areas. Previous research (Wheatley, 2014) highlighted relevant differences in subjective well-being between women and men in relation to travel-to-work. The lower levels of satisfaction among women commuters were influenced by multi-activity journeys and the unequal division of unpaid work. Similarly, research on paid and unpaid work during COVID-19 lockdown (Zannella et al, 2020) emphasized higher levels of stress among teleworking mothers of young children.  Our analysis develops on data from the Italian Time Use Survey (TUS). Drawing on the information contained in the time diaries and survey, we study the interaction between travel-to-work, time-use, and subjective well-being among commuters.  The classification of time diary activities encompasses different types of travel (e.g., work- or family-related) allowing for a deepen analysis of the relationship between subjective well-being, time use structures and commuting. This analysis allows to understand how commuting from inner areas has a different impact on well-being in relation to individual characteristics such as gender, life course stages, and resource availability.  This evidence could contribute to developing informed strategies that counteract the process of depopulation of peripheral areas.

Children’s wellbeing and time use: insight from children and their parents

Author: Natalia Mikhailova

Contributing author(s): Maria Nagernyak

The time use is one of the indicators of well-being. Once compared to adult time use, children's time use is not as well explored in the contemporary social sciences. Nonetheless, time use is considered in a number of worldwide indices of children's well-being, and specific elements of time use are researched in the fields of psychology, sociology, marketing, and healthcare. The present research covers the findings from in-depth interviews with Russian parents as well as focus groups and friend triads on time use and subjective well-being among children aged 7 to 16. Additionally, it contains the findings of a unique children light diary that explores their time use. It includes data from children who reported their activities for 2 days: last weekday and last weekend with 30 minutes breaks, including contextual variables such as locations, companions, online or offline format of the activities, and satisfaction with the time of each activity.

The findings demonstrate children's attitudes and sense of importance toward various everyday activities. Results about the who, what, when, and where of the activities are also reported. Lastly, as digitalization is closely linked to children's daily lives, one of the areas of emphasis is online activities. The topic of discussion both positive and risky aspects in terms of children's well-being and time use from the viewpoints of the children and their parents.

Multitasking, time poverty and wellbeing of rich and poor

Author: Ter-Akopov Sergei

Modern society is accelerating, life is becoming faster and faster, and people no longer have 24 hours to cope with all their work and responsibilities.Recentsurveys show that if we take into account parallel activities, the duration of the day becomes more than 26 hours on average, and even longer for highly paid women – 28 hours. Multitasking has become commonplace for most people, not only when completing tasks at work but also at home and during leisure time.

Recent Russian time use surveys provide a wide range of data, including data on the frequency and duration of various activities, day's routines, and parallel activities. New surveys make it possible to combine data on time use with other life spheres: income, consumption and financial behaviour of the population, as well as life satisfaction. A unique longitudinal time use survey of the top income decile which last year, allowing us to study their time budgets and shed some light on deprivation and poverty to compare rich and poor.

Time spent travelling and inequalities on the raise?: sociodemographic characterisation

Author: EMÍLIA ARAÚJO

Contributing author(s): Angela Leite, and Daniela Monteiro

Time spent travelling is a variable that contributes to increasing or decreasing quality of life and explain several forms of inequality affecting specific social groups. In fact, there are several measures aimed at reducing the time spent travelling; in addition, the concept of 15-minute cities is being introduced, which involves reorganising space so that services, schools and work organisations are closer to the area of residence, increasing free and leisure time as well as time for social and civic participation. However, it is essential to assess how much time this is and how it is associated with structuring variables such as sociodemographic variables, namely gender, age, schooling, marital status and professional activity. To this end, the Time use survey (TUS) from Eurostat's available database will be used, and the data will be analysed using the statistical analysis programme SPSS version 28; the analyses will include descriptive and inferential statistical procedures. This analysis will reflect on urban planning, transport services, and, in general, the interventions that need to be made to help reduce the time spent travelling and the associated costs and inequalities.

Time spent on shopping and services by the European population: An longitudinal and comparative analysis

Author: Daniela Daniela Monteiro

Contributing author(s): Emília Araújo, Paula Urze, Ângela Leite

Analysing shopping and service hours provides essential information for classifying lifestyles and understanding changes and dynamics in everyday practices, including family interactions and free and leisure time, allowing to rethink social inequalities today. In recent years, the opening hours of shops and services have been increasingly extended in line with the development of the consumer society. Labour time is losing its centrality in relation to consumption and service time. However, we still know little about the relationship between this time and the other times and we have yet to demonstrate how this centrality of commercial time has been reinforced over the years. This communication aims to analyse the time spent on shopping and services by the European population, assessing its evolution and comparing it with the time spent on other activities, which are also the subject of time studies. The findings of this research will not only contribute to academic knowledge, especially as regards the new methods of budgeting time spent in consumption at/from home,  but also have practical implications for rethinking how social times are structured, and what  practical actions families, schools and work organizations can develop in order to fight against several others forms of time poverty derived from the centrality of consumption time . To this end, the Time use survey (TUS) from Eurostat's available database will be analysed and subjected to descriptive and inferential statistical analysis procedures using the SPSS version 28 data analysis programme.

Keywords: time-use; time spent on shopping and services; consumer society; european population.

Firm size and working time patterns: the impact of crises

Author: ELSA FONTAINHA

Regarding salary differences according to business size, there is an abundance of literature and the empirical results mostly confirm the existence of a salary premium associated with firm size. In comparison with salaries, however, working time has received relatively little attention and the empirical literature has mixed results. The aim of this investigation is to analyze the influence of business size on working time duration, patters and trends for the period 2011-2021. Using Linked Employer Employee Data (LEED), including about 3,000,000 observations per year of wage earners working in the Portuguese private sector (micro, small, medium and large firms) three types of explanatory factors are discussed: economic, technological and institutional. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) deserve particular study because they have more flexible working time regulations and were more affected by the economic an pandemic crises. The investigation developed until now allowed us to conclude that: i) there is some influence of the business size on the weekly duration of work, but the relationship is not regular and increasing as in the case of salary levels; ii) for small companies, the results suggest the existence of a trade-off between salary levels (less favorable in small companies) and non-salary characteristics of the job (more favorable in small companies) such as working time ; iii) analysis by activity sector reveals that technological factors and factors associated with the demand for goods and services influence overtime work and part-time work; iv) changes in the legal framework regulating working time during the period under analysis were decisive for the decrease in working time in companies of different sizes.  

Keywords: Working Time, Business Cycles, Overtime, Firm Size, Portugal, LEED

Journal of Economic Literature (JEL) code:  E32, J22